“Possibilities and Probabilities in Higher Education of Asia”
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MODERN BALINESE PAINTING AS GLOCAL ARTS
often even equated, as expressed by Granoka in Suamba, (2003: 3), that art is religion and religion is art.
Balinese art carries the theme of puppets taken from the epics of the Mahabarata, Ramayana, as well as other Hindu holy tales, which were created guided by Hindu aesthetics. Hindu’s aesthetics has three aspects, namely the shiwam aspect (chastity), satyam (truth/loyalty), and sundharam (beauty) (Dibia, 2003: 96). The aspect of chastity and truth is related to the content or meaning, while the aspect of beauty is related to the visual aspect only. Content or meaning is more preferred considering that Balinese art adheres to the principle of form follows meaning (Piliang, 2010: 157). The visual forms presented refer to ideological or spiritual meanings.
Balinese fine art is a collective art because it presents the characteristics of the community.
Even though it is a collective art with a distinctive dialect, it does not cover the possibility of an individual style (ideolek). Gell (1998: 159), says that the collective style and individual style cannot be separated considering the collective style is the background for the individual style. In the collective style always grows individual style.
The puppet theme is displayed based on traditional standards. For example, the figure of the puppet, namely the head and body parts are drawn in three quarters (Djelantik, 1990:
12), while the legs are seen from the front. The attributes, accessories, and colors of puppet characters are apporiated to their respective symbolic meanings. In Balinese art, puppet scenes are laid out narratively based on the storyline. In one theme consists of several scenes that narrate and continue until the story ends.
Balinese painting has undergone revolutionary changes after being influenced by modern or global (art) culture. Modern or global art that is based on the homological and universal paradigm carries the spirit of progress, rationality, and novelty, high culture, artistic autonomy, a single code, aesthetic formalism, and form follows function (Piliang, 2006:
130-135). Modern art then developed into global art, but the spirit of modernity was put forward. Modernism or the global have the same interests in worldly matters, come from Western countries, and refer to rationality. Since getting a modern influence, the puppet theme changes to the theme of everyday life. Likewise, modern art techniques were also adopted, including perspective techniques, anatomy, and lighting techniques. The description of the object is based on consideration mathematical calculations (Couteau, 2003: 120).
Themes and techniques are adopted from modern art, so the colonial period of Balinese painting is called modern Balinese art (Couteau, 2003: 125). Global art spread throughout the world in line with the development of increasingly sophisticated science and communication technology. Giddens (2009: 84), said that globalization as an intensification of world social relations that connects localities that are far apart, so that an event that occurs in a place can be accessed easily and quickly from far away.
The influence of global art, besides causing positive impacts and also negative impacts. The positive impact is the development of Balinese painting in a dynamic direction. The negative impact of global influences is the loss of local characteristics of Balinese painting, remember that globalization is a process towards universal direction (Giddens, 2009: 85). Globalization is inevitable recall that Bali has become part of a global village (Giddens, 2009: 86). Under the dominance of globalization, Balinese painting needs to find ways to embrace positive
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influences and minimize negative influences (Fernandez, 2009: 45). One way that is done is glocalization. Glocalization is a form of localization of global culture which is characterized by the presence of mixed cultural elements (Ritzer and Goodman, 2010: 558). Localization of the global cultural code in Balinese painting, in fact, has occurred since the colonial period. This can be seen in the presence of objects, themes, and techniques of global art — coloring, lighting, anatomy. Meanwhile, there have not been many studies on glocalization in Balinese painting. Likewise, the study of visual aspects in Balinese painting that points to cross-cultural dialogue has not been done much. In this regard, this article examines two main problems, namely the first, glocalization in Balinese painting and the second, cross- cultural dialogues examined from objects, themes, and techniques.
The theoretical approach used to study it is the theory of glocalization (Fernandez, 2009;
Barker, 2004; Barry, 2010) and hybridity theory (Barker, 2004). By hold on to this theory, it can be built the assumption that glocalization in Balinese painting is a form of localization of global cultural codes characterized by the presence of mixed cultural elements. The localization process takes place through the stages of adoption (adopt), adaptation (adapt) and advanced (adept) (Barry, 2010: 228). Cross-cultural dialogue is seen in the display of objects, themes, techniques, which are hybrid forms (Barker, 2004).
Research Methods
This article is a small theme from the results of a dissertation entitled “Genealogy of Prerananism in the Development of Balinese Art” (Supir, 2016). The approach used is qualitative research that have support on the paradigm of glocalization theory (Fernandez, 2009; Barker, 2004; Barry 2010) and the paradigm of hybridity theory (Barker, 2004, Piliang, 2006). The object of research is Balinese painting. Balinese painting is a cultural artifact that has a structure of visual language that is understood through the paradigm of postmodern aesthetic theory (Piliang, 2006).
Disclosure of visual language done, other than through in-depth interviews and informants, among others, painters, gallery owners, critics, and others, as well as observing Balinese paintings. In addition, documentation studies were also carried out especially on literature which discussed Balinese painting. The approach was integrated to answer the research problem.
Data Analysis and Interpretation Glocalization in Balinese Painting
Emergence of Glocalization in Balinese Painting
In The Oxford Dictionary of New Words that the term is “Glocal” and the word glocalization is said to be a process of mutual breakthrough between global and local to make a unification.
Initially, glocalization was applied in agriculture to adapt global agricultural techniques to local conditions. The word glocalization, later, was used in the field of language and in the 1980s, it was used in the fields of business and marketing (Sedda, 2015: 36).
Glocalization is a way to balance local and global. A culture is said to have been localized if there were other cultural elements in it that could enhance and enrich the culture itself.
Glocalization can form a hybrid of culture as a result of meetings between global culture and local culture. Barker (2004: 405) said that glocalization is a term used to express global
production of local products and localization of global product. Cultural glocalization is reflected in the presence of localized global cultural products. This can be seen in Balinese painting, namely the presence of visual elements and the principles of the preparation of global art that has been localized. The emergence of localized elements and compilation techniques of global cannot be separated from the role of power in the colonial period. Dutch colonial rule over Bali because it had advanced technological and scientific equipment. As a nation that glorifies rationality and holds the spirit of homogenization, Dutch Colonialism made uniformity over its colonies. The practice of uniformity is carried out by the Dutch Colonial in almost all areas of Balinese life, including the arts (painting). Western artists who are under the Dutch Colonial rule follow the concept of binary opposition in viewing Balinese art. The binary opposition is a system that attempted to divide the world into two classifications — top-down, big-small, male-female and other. The practice of binary opposition raises central- peripheral relations, subject-objects, master-slaves, which then give birth to dominance (Rusbiantoro, 2001: 3).
Western artists view Western art as a rational, advanced, superior, dynamic art different from Balinese art that is positioned as an irrational, backward, static art, and its object comes from the world of imagination (Djelantik, 1988: 24). In the position of Balinese art as a background art, Western artists - Spies and Bonnet - teach Balinese artists the rules of modern art. Thus, Western artists place modern art as a center or role model, while Balinese art is the edge.
Positioning the center-edge causes oppression through the principle of homogenization.
The practice of Western artists’ domination toward Balinese artists can take place because Western artists have power. Foucault (2002: 155) says that the practice of power is done to each individu, in a sense, that power must be able to gain access to individual bodies, actions, attitudes, and models of everyday behavior. Spies and Bonnet implant modern art ideology to Pitamaha artists through disciplinary practices. Pitamaha artists are taught and controlled about ways to draw objects based on modern art rules. Pitamaha artists want to accept the rules of modern art because Spies and Bonnet are seen as experts in the work of art and art knowledge. This Western artist is also considered to have the ability to sell Balinese artists’
artwork. In addition, Balinese artists view modern art as an art of progress, development, dynamic, so it must be used as a reference. Positioned like that, Spies and Bonnet have the power to regulate Balinese artists. Foucault in Martono (2014: 55) says that knowledge is a weapon of power.
Pitamaha’s artist accepts advice from Spies and Bonnet because it is seen as a truth. They, without feeling forced, imitate the rules of modern art, both object drawing, lighting, and anatomical techniques. But in this imitation, the rules of modern art were adjusted and mixed with the rules of Balinese painting so that glocalization took place. The practice of glocalization in Balinese painting is inseparable from the role of compradors. Compradores are people who act as agents or intermediaries for foreign organizations involved in investment, trade, or economic or political exploitation. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comprador#References) accessed May 25, 2019.
When Spies and Bonnet instilled the ideology of modern art with the artist Pitamaha, they used the Ubud castle as a comprador. Cokorda Gede Agung Sukawati, ruler of the Ubud castle, acts as a comprador who connects Spies and Bonnet with Balinese artists. This can be seen from the blessing of the desire of Spies and Bonnet to establish the association of
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Pitamaha artists in 1936. Puri also facilitated the place and entrusted Spies and Bonnet to teach the rules of modern art (Couteau, 2003: 125). Puri Ubud mandates Spies and Bonnet to teach the rules of modern art to be seen by Pitamaha artists as a decree that must be accepted. Therefore, they accept the rules of modern art taught by Spies and Bonnet. Thus, the acceptance of Pitamaha artists against modern art cannot be separated from the views of Balinese people towards the ruler or king as the god of nyalantara or a down to earth god (Atmadja, 2010: 29).
Glocalization Process
Glocalization raises cross-cultural dialogue. In cross-cultural dialogue, there are two important things, namely 1) interaction and dialogue between various local cultures and; 2) awareness alternative concepts and practices (Fernandez, 2009: 46-47). In the interaction of local cultures, where cultures are different but they be aware have similar cultural elements.
For example, local culture has elements in common with global culture. While awareness builds on alternative concepts and practices, different and even conflicting cultures can mix if the two cultures build awareness to carry out alternative concepts and practices. By building alternative concepts, the two cultures are able to compare, see the differences, and evaluate those differences critically. Thus, both cultures can interact democratically. Both cultures are able to express and maintain, and explore their respective cultural concepts and are able to adopt other cultural concepts and practices.
The practice of interaction between the rules of modern or global art and Balinese art can occur because Balinese artists see that Balinese art has the same elements as global art.
These elements include: visual elements - lines, fields, shapes, colors, textures, and others (Dharsono, 2007: 71-75).
Awareness builds alternative concepts and practices because global art has the principle of compilation — composition, balance, and others — in contrast to Balinese art. For example, global art glorifies rationality and carries a secular nature, very different from Balinese art as a medium for delivering religious messages and full of symbolic meanings. Global art carries the principle of form follows function, while Balinese art carries the form principle follows meaning (Piliang, 2010: 157). Although global art and Balinese art have differences, global art can be mixed with Balinese art. This can not be separated from the awareness of Balinese artists to build alternative concepts and practices, so that the glocalization between global art and Balinese art can be realized.
The process of glocalization is carried out in three stages, namely the stage of adoption (adopt), the stage of adaptation (adapt), and the advanced stage (adept) (Barry, 2010: 228).
At the stage of adoption, Balinese artists took elements and rules of global art. Then the elements and rules are adjusted to the rules of Balinese art in order to appear harmoniously with the basic elements in Balinese art. In the last stage, after proficient at drawing global objects, Balinese artists sought to create visual forms based on their own characteristics. In this stage, artists are no longer under the control and licensing of global power, but create a visual form independently.
Cross-Cultural Dialogue in Balinese Art Glocal Objects of Balinese Art
Object is something that is used as the main benchmark for making fine art. The object can
be human, plants, animals, objects, and scenery. The object in Ketut Sadia’s painting entitled
“Sepak Bola” in 2017 is a football player. The soccer game is held on a field consisting of two teams. The left side of the team wore a red shirt, blue pants, while the right side team wore a brown shirt and white pants. The second flag of the squad is fixed on the edge of the field. Helicopters containing cameramen are on the field. The audience with a variety of costume styles filled the edge of the field. Both teams, flags, and helicopters are global objects adopted by Ketut Sadia.
The global object is then adapted into Balinese aesthetic rules. The soccer player is drawn with reference to the puppet perspective, namely the head is drawn three quarters of the part, the body and legs are drawn from the front. The object is arranged by spreading to meet the image area. The center of attention is built by giving colors and bright light to the main object to be different from the audience as the background. The depiction of objects in the painting “Sepak Bola”, displays the distinctive characteristics of Ketut Sadia, both object visualization, coloring, and the principle of structuring, both in composition, in perspective, proportion, and anatomy. His expertise shows his own characteristics, so that Ketut Sadia has his own idiolek which is different from other painter idiols. Disclosure of self-identity, in art, is very important because it is a branding for the painter himself.
Themes in Balinese Painting
Theme is a main idea or idea of a thing, one of them in painting. Like, the theme in I Ketut Lasia’s painting entitled “The Ten Lepers”. Ketut Lasia draws the theme The Ten Lepers based on Christianity. He drew the theme, because Lasia was a Christian who lived in Peliatan Village, Ubud. The Ten Lepers is a global theme that describes the figure of Jesus and his followers in dealing with lepers. This global theme was adopted by Lasia. The next stage is to adapt the theme of The Ten Lepers by describing the figure of Jesus and his followers wearing Balinese traditional attire. Leprosy sufferers and objects on the backgrounds are drawn based on the rules of Balinese art. The figure of Jesus as the main object is drawn bigger than the other objects.
Objects are drawn by referring to the law of linear perspective, but with calculated calculations.
That is, the comparison of the magnitude of the objects that are in front, in the middle, and far behind is not based on mathematical calculations or almost the same. Humans are drawn by referring to the rules of modern proportions, but comparisons between parts of one another are also estimated (Couteau, 2003: 126).
The Ten Lepers theme is drawn with reference to Balinese aesthetic rules, so this global theme is often suspected of being a local theme. This is a form of adoption, adaptation, and proficiency of Balinese painters processing global themes so that they appear like Balinese local paintings.
Works: Ketut Lasia; Title: Football Match (Left); The Ten Lepers (Right)
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Techniques
Techniques in fine art are ways that are carried out to realize a work of art. Techniques known in painting, among others, techniques In this case discussed various techniques in fine arts, namely plaque techniques, collage techniques, and transparent techniques. But related to modern Balinese painting, the technique used is a transparent technique. Thin paint is satisfied with the surface of the fabric to produce color on a transparent surface.
Before being given color, several steps must be taken in Balinese painting, namely, to touch, to be married, to blur, to be nurtured, and to flash. Nyeket is making contour lines using a pencil to determine the composition, proportion, and perspective perspective. Nyawi is a member contour process using pens and Chinese ink. Nyelah is the process of sorting objects in front of and behind using Chinese brushes and inks. Ngabur, the process of emphasizing detail, anatomy and lighting, using brushes and Chinese ink. Nguwarnain, the process of giving color to objects and backgrounds. Nyenter, the process determines and confirms the effect of light exposed to the object. In the wayang theme, Balinese painting knows no lighting techniques. All bright objects are drawn with the same intensity of light and darkness.
After being influenced by modern painting taught by Spies, Balinese painting (Ubud style and Batuan) adopted lighting techniques or chiaroscuro. The light source as if it comes from the sun, which is located far from the object, so that light hits objects with the same intensity.
But around the 1980s a new variant of lighting techniques emerged. As seen by a painting by Nyoman Meja entitled “Kecak Dance of Children”. In this painting, the table displays the effect of contrasting light, does not spread and is focused on a group of kecak dancers. The color of light is dominated by red. The table adopts lighting techniques ala European painters.
In the world of European painting, it was known as a lighting technique by painter Rembrandt.
Rembrandt was a Dutch painter, developing in the 17th century lighting techniques whose light came from torches or candles. The position of the light source is so lose to the object, so that the division between the light and dark fields is very sharp (Honor and John Fleming, 1982: 467). Rembrandt’s lighting techniques, by the Desk, were then crossed with Balinese painting techniques, so that the Rembrandt lighting technique appeared that felt Bali.
Conclusion
Modern Balinese painting is one genre of Balinese painting that has the influence of modern painting taught by Western artists. Various visual elements and principles of education and modern techniques were adopted and adapted to the local aesthetic principles of Bali through the process of glocalization. Glocalization is done to build cross- cultural dialogue. Cultural dialogue appears in the mix of visual elements, themes, and lighting techniques. Cross- cultural dialogue on visual elements can be seen in the adoption and adaptation of object shapes. The theme can be seen from the emergence of the theme of Christianity that has never been known in Balinese painting. The Rembrandt torch lighting technique displays contrasting differences between light and dark fields.
Bibliography
Adnyana. I Wayan, dkk. (2017). “Seni Lukis Batuan” Laporan Penelitian. Denpasar: Dinas Kebudayaan Provinsi Bali. Amaladass, Anand. (2007). “Aesthetics and Religion from the Indian Perspective” dalam Guttorm Floistad Aesthetics and Philosophy of Art, Volume 9. The Netherlands: Springer.