Determine the Range of Meaning for the Word

Steps for Performing Word Studies

2. Determine the Range of Meaning for the Word

The first part of this step involves research in lexicons to determine the range of meaning the word had at the time when it was used by the author.74 Weighing these possible meanings of the word in light of the train of thought in the immedi- ate context and the historical background enables the interpreter to make a prelimi- nary selection of the best English translation. While many lexicons assist in making this choice by listing biblical references under the various meanings of a specific word, the interpreter should always weigh the contextual evidence for him/herself rather than simply accept this opinion.

Simply put, the interpreter seeks to get into the shoes of the original readers to sense how they would hear the words of the passage. This involves securing as much information as possible about the words and concepts of the time. Lexicons serve students well at this point, for they provide information about the possible meanings of words throughout the history of time the lexicon covers.

But where do lexicons get their information? Various kinds of lexicons research one or more fields of study and catalog their findings. Typically, they investigate

‘*Technically, a word that occurs only once in the Bible is called a hapax legomenon, from the Greek meaning “being said once.”

‘Vhe use of “head” in 1 Cor 11:2-16 is an example.

741n semantics this is called “synchronic analysis.” Though words may have an interesting array of meanings over their history (thus “diachronic analysis”), interpreters must discover what words mean at the time in question.

General Rules of Hermeneutics-Prose 191 various ancient literary sources-documents, published works, and letters, for ex- ample. Beyond that, some lexicons include nonliterary materials like epitaphs on tombs, receipts, or inscriptions on papyri and other places. Often parallel or cog- nate languages are compared, as well as findings in those languages where parallels to biblical languages may occur. Of course, previous Scripture provides a prime source for discovering meanings of words, so lexicons may survey the Septuagint (LXX-the OT translated into Greek in the second century B.C.). This provides help, at times, since it shows how the Jews at that time rendered the Hebrew into Greek.75 Certainly lexicons do not neglect current Scripture. That is, they also seek to understand the meanings of words by evaluating the uses they discover else- where, either in the OT or the NT. Searching the lexicons is a fact-finding mission.

What options exist for the crucial words in a passage? We only know the options by surveying actual uses.

At this juncture we must allow for two kinds of students: those who do not or cannot have facility in the biblical languages and those who do-at least to some degree. For the first group of interpreters several works provide access to the meanings of words: J. D. Douglas, ed., The Ihutrated Bible Dictionary, 3

~01s.;~~ M. C. Tenney, ed., Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, 5 ~01s.;~~

I? J. Achtemeier, ed., Harper’s Bible Dictionary;78 G. W. Bromiley, ed., Interna- tional Standard Bible Encyclopedia, 4 vols., revised edition;79 D. N. Freedman, ed., The Anchor Bible Dictionary, 6 vols.,aa0 T. C. Butler, ed., Ho/man Bible Dic- tionaryal and G. A. Buttrick, ed., The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible, 4 ~01s.~~

These comprise a fine range of sources in which students who do not work in Hebrew and/or Greek can learn valuable insights into words in both testa- ments.83

Students who know the biblical languages to some degree have the distinct advantage of access to further important resources. At the same time, even students with limited knowledge of Hebrew or Greek might want to make use of these more

“advanced” resources from time to time. Particularly with the use of interlinear Bibles, and other “helps,” many fine insights are accessible to those willing to do some hunting. How would this work in practice? The following examples will illus- trate the procedure and clarifjr the types of information we are seeking.

‘YThis does not mean, however, that if we seek to know what a Greek word meant, we can simply see what Hebrew word it translated in the LXX and then find the meaning of the Hebrew word.

As we have seen, the specific Hebrew and Greek words could have more than one meaning. Which translated which? In addition, there never is a one-toone overlap between languages; often the LXX paraphrases rather than translates, and frequently the LXX is motivated by theological or practical concerns in how it renders the OT.

‘%Vheaton, IL: Tyndale, 1980).

“(Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1975).

‘“(San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1985).

79(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979-86).

@‘(Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992).

YNashville: Broadman, 1991).

“*(Nashville; New York: Abingdon: 1962).

R5ee the bibliography for further discussion and information about these sources.

192 Introduction to Biblical I n t e r p r e t a t i o n

For OT studies The New

Brown-Driver-Brt&-Gesenius Hebrew and En&&

Lexicon with an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic

[abbreviated BDB]

provides help for studying the range of meanings for words, though one must be able to find the appropriate Hebrew term. 84 Another source, certainly more conve- nient to use, provides a compact discussion of key Hebrew words: R L. Harris, et al., eds., Theological

Wordbook of the Old Testament, 2

~01s. [

TWOT].85

As

a beginning, these sources help students discover the basic range of mean- ing for a word through its history. This ofien includes a word’s etymology, but students must recall that a word’s history may offer little or no clues to its current meanings. For example, in Gen 9 or 12 the word “covenant” figures prominently.

A quick check in Einspahr’s

Index

shows that “covenant” is the translation of the Hebrew word

be&h

and that BDB discusses the word on p. 136.86 Turning to BDB we find the basic meaning for

be&h:

pact, compact, covenant. The lexicon subdivides this basic meaning into three categories: I. between men; II. between God and man; and III. phrases (as in covenant making, covenant keeping, and covenant violation). If we further scrutinize the first category, we find a variety of nuances of covenants between people: (1) treaty or alliance, as in Abram’s alliance with the Amorites (Gen 14:13); (2) a constitution or ordinance between a mon- arch and subjects (2 Sam 5:3); (3) a pledge (2 Kgs 11:4); (4) alliance of tiend- ship, as between David and Jonathan (1 Sam 18:3; 23:18); and (5) a marriage alliance (Prov 2: 17; Ma12: 14). BDB delineates the other two categories with equal thoroughness.

It appears that

be&b can

have the sense of a bilateral arrangement in which two parties draw up a mutually agreeable pact or relationship. But it also can mean a more unilateral arrangement that God (or a victorious monarch) determines and imposes. For example, God unilaterally established a covenant with Abraham (Gen 17:3-10; Exod 6:4), though Israel was required to keep its terms to enjoy God’s promised blessings.

Surveying

TWOT,87

students will find definitions similar to those in BDB but also a more elaborate discussion of the various uses and extensive bibliographic helps for tirther insight or study. The author assesses the possible etymology of

be&b

along with possible connections to Akkadian words. He adds a crucial element to the discussion: uses of

be&h

need to be understood on the basis ofwhether the two parties to the covenant are equals or whether one is superior to the other. So the

84(Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1979). Words are coded to Strong’s Erhaustioe Concordance (New York: Hunt Eaton; Cincinnati: Cranston Curts, 1894; and by Hendrickson and Nelson recently), which lists the English words of the K J V. Also, B. Einspahr compiled an Znu&c to Brown, Driver and Brings Hebrew Lexicon (Chicago: Moody, 1976), employing the New American Standard Bible (La Habra, CA: The Lockman Foundation, 1972) in its references. Using this Index one can locate where a Hebrew word occurs in the OT, discover its meaning, and locate the page and section in BDB where it is discussed. The older BDBs remain serviceable; they merely lack the correlation to Strong’s,

“5(Chicago: Moody, 1980).

%Alternatively, one would discover b’rftb from reading a tool such as fie NZVInterlinear He- brew-English Old Testament, cd. J, R. Kohlenberger, III (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987).

“E. B. Smick, 7WO7: I:lZ8-30.

General Rules of Hermeneutics-Prose

,.,.

193 covenant between Abram and the Amorites is between equals

(Gen

14: 13), but not so between Israel and the Gibeonites (Josh 9).88

At this point the student has a good grasp of the range of meaning for

berM

In places it may overlap with the meaning of the modern

word “contract,” into

which two parties enter and agree to certain obligations and benefits. But it

also

may mean a “treaty” that a victorious king imposes on a vanquished foe. It refers, too, to a pact or arrangement that God decides upon in order to provide for and bless people. In this instance he requires their obedience and trust in response or he may cancel the covenant.

Students who know Greek will find two lexicons most valuable for

studying

NT words:

A Greek-En&& Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature,

2d English edition, by W. Bauer, W. F. Arndt, F. W. Gingrich, and F.

Danker, [abbreviated BAGD]89 and

A Greek-En&h Lexicon of the New Testament Based on Semantic Domains, 2

vols., by J. I?. Louw and E. A. Nida.90 While both provide excellent help in finding the range of meaning for Greek words, the Bauer lexicon provides the more extensive references for each entry, ofien including every NT occurrence of a word. Louw and Nida, on the other hand, provide essential defini- tions and insight about a word’s field of meaning that is lacking in other lexicons.

The Greek word

k*os

(lord) can serve as a comparative example of the two lexicons. In surveying the uses of this word during the Hellenistic period, the Bauer lexicon divides the range of meaning into two main categories. The general desig- nation includes: (1) “Owner” of impersonal possessions or of a slave, “master,”

or

“lord”; and (2) Designation of person of high position-“LOrd,‘‘-or as title of respect- “sir.” Religious usage indicated Lord used of God, of deified kings, Jesus, and other supernatural beings like angels.91

Louw and Nida conveniently list the range of meaning in the index volume (II) under the entry of

kyrios:

Lord, owner, ruler, and sir.92 The domain reference numbers listed indicate that each meaning comes fkom a different domain. “Lord”

belongs to the domain of words indicating supernatural beings and powers

(

12.9).

The definition in Vol. 1 identifies this as a title for God or Christ, indicating “one who exercises supernatural authority over mankind.“93 The second meaning,

“owner,n occurs in the domain of words that express ownership or possession

(

57.12). Here the definition of

kyrios

is “one who owns and controls property, including especially servants and slaves, with important supplementary semantic

R8More thorough still is the discussion in 7WOT, 2:253_78, which supplies the fullest discussion in English. The main entries for this 25 page essay include: I. etymology; II. meaning; III. semantic range; IV. covenantal ceremony; V. covenant and law; et al. The bibliography is more extensive, yet heavily leaning to German scholarship.

Xg(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). See more extensive comments about these ex- cellent sources in the bibliography. We also provide additional help in utilizing the wealth of informa- tion they provide.

%(New York, et al.: United Bible Societies, 1988).

“BAGD, 459-461.

“Louw and Nida, A Greek-English Lexicon, 2: 149.

‘Louw and Nida, A Greek-English Lexicon, 1: 139.

194 Introduction to Biblical Inttrpretation

components of high status and respect”; “owner”, “master,” and “lord” serve as good glasses.%

^K+os

meaning “ruler,” occurs in the group of words used to indicate con- trol or rule and in the subdomain focusin g on ruling or governing other people (37.51).

The proposed translations, “ruler,” “master, n “lord,” communicate its meaning as uone who rules or exercises authority over others.*5 When +s means usir” (87.53), it belongs to the domain of words indicating status and the subdomain of words express- ing high status or rank. Thus, it was ua title of respect used in addressing or speaking of a man-sir, mister. ~Lookingtheseupin Vol. 1 discloses both the specific domain to which each of these meanings belongs and a precise definition of each meaning.

Having this canvass of the lexicons, the student next attempts to identifjr the semantic domain to which a specific use of the word most likely belongs. In the case of a ucovenant,” does the occurrence of

b%tb fill

into the domain of uimposed, uni- lateral arrangements” or umutually negotiated treaties”-if we may describe them in such stark terms? How are we to understand the use in Job 31 :l, “I made a COP-

enant with

my eyes not to look lustfblly at a girl”? Though the use is figurative, did not the speaker impose, by means of personal discipline, a restriction on his eyes?

Or what does the following text imply in speaking about the Servant of the Lord: “I will keep you and will make you to be a

covenant for the

people and a light for the Gentiles” (Isa 42:6)? Is this the unew covenant” that God promises to pro- vide (see Jer 31:31-34; cf. Heb W-12)? Is it an imposed arrangement? Must it still be accompanied by faith lest God cancel its benefits as he did with Israel and the first covenant? These may be dif&ult decisions but these questions demonstrate the issues the interpreter must investigate.

In the NT example of

kyrios,

when one studies Acts 95 where Paul addresses the voice he hears with the question, “Who are you,

ford?’ the

interpreter must decide whether this use is a title of respect (i.e., u~ir” indicating high status); whether Paul (or the writer) intends a higher (“Lord,” perhaps even with a supernatural) sense; or whether the writer means a double entendre.

In addition to understanding a word’s range of meaning, the interpreter needs to know how the specific meaning of the word in the passage relates to the other words in its field of meaning. By discovering the particular meaning of a word within its field of meaning, the interpreter learns the general sphere of ideas to which this meaning of the word belongs; the relationship that exists between this word and the other words used in this semantic field; and perhaps what distinguishes this word from the others in its semantic field.

One aspect of word studies brings the two testaments together. Due to the demise of Hebrew as a spoken language, in the second century

^B.C.

the Jewish com- munity in Alexandria produced the Septuagint.97 Thereafter, the Jews living in the

%ouw

and Nida, A Greek-Engksb Lexicon, 1:559.

%ouw and Nida, A Greek-English Lexicon, 1:478.

%Louw and Nida, A Greek-English Lexicon 1:739.

97The title Septuagint (from the Latin for seventy), thus abbreviated LXX, originates in the leg- end that seventy (or seventy-two) Jewish scholars produced the translation. For accounts see Philo, V&a Mosis II.v.-vii.2-4; Josephus, Ant. XII.ii.l-15; Justin, Apology I, 31; and Irenaeus, Against Her- esies III.xxi.2.

General Rules of Hermeneutics-Prose 195 Roman world used the LXX translation. In fact, it became the Bible of most of the early Christians during the writing of the NT. As a result of their experience of the OT through this Greek translation, the NT writers used many Greek words with meanings not normally found in the everyday use of the same terms, much like Christians today might use terms like “fellowship” or uredemption” with meanings not normally understood by secular people. 98 Religious and theological ideas devel- oped in the OT had become attached to the words, adding new nuances to their meanings.

The Septuagint use of

kytr’os

(lord) is one of many examples of this Septuagintal influence on NT words. This word appears over 9000 times in the LXX with the majorityA, to be exact-translating the divine name uYahweh.“W The use oj

kyrios

to translate the Hebrew term for LORD,

D’dhzG,

which the OT sometimes used as a title for God, was quite natural. However, the translation of God’s sacred name “Yahweh” by this word reflects the Jewish aversion to uttering the divine name lest they be guilty of desecrating it. Given how consistently the Hebrew

“Yahweh” was translated as LORD in the Septuagint, many scholars afErm the high probability that references to Jesus as “Lord” in the NT carry strong connotations of deity.‘O(’

Another example of the insights gained from a study of the Septuagint influ- ence can be seen in the NT use of the word “firstborn.” When the title “firstborn”

is used concerning Jesus, it may carry merely the literal meaning of the first child born by its mother as in Lk 2:7, “She gave birth to her firstborn, a son.” But this literal sense does not fit the two theological uses of the word in the titles for Christ in Colossians, “the firstborn of all creation” (1:15) and “the firstborn from the dead” (1:18). While some have suggested that “firstborn of all creation” means

_. 9BE. Ferguson gives other common examples when he writes, “The distinctive religious meaning of many New Testament words (e.g., ekk&sia, baptisma, pre.&yteros, psallo, cheimtoniu) is to be found not from etymology or classical usage but from the adaptations already made by Greek-speaking Jews” (Buc&groun& of Early Cbdtinfty [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19871,346f.). The Greek words he cites are translated, respectively, church (assembly), baptism (immersion), elder, sing psalms, and lift- ing up of one’s hand.

99rhe KJV rendered this Hebrew word “Jehovah.”

I’%. E. B. Cranfield says concerning Paul’s use of ilityrios at Rom 10:9, “Paul applies to Christ, without-apparently&e least sense of inappropriateness, the &rios of LXX passages in which it is perfectly clear that the Myra referred to is God Himself.” He goes on, “We take it that, for Paul, the confession that Jesus is Lord meant the acknowledgment that Jesus shares the name and the nature, the holiness, the authority, power, majesty and eternity of the one and only true God” (Z%e Epistle to the

Romuns, 2 ~01s. ICC [Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 19791, 2:529). Confirming this conclusion in commenting on the use of kryrios at Acts 2:36, F. F. Bruce notes, “To a Jew, there was only one name ‘above every name’-the Ineffable Name of the God of Israel, represented in synagogue reading and in the LXX text by the Title ‘Lord.’ And that the apostles meant to give Jesus the title ‘Lord’ in this highest sense of all is indicated by the way in which they do not hesitate on occasion to apply to Him passages of OT scripture referring to Jehovah” (The Book of Acts, NICNT [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19541, 74). Finally, speaking of Paul’s use’of “Lord” in 1 Cor 12:1-3, G. D. Fee observes, “The use of ‘Lord’ in such a context meant absolute allegiance to Jesus as one’s deity and set believers apart from both Jews, for whom such a confession was blasphemy, and pagans, especially those in the cults, whose deities were called ‘lords”’ (ne First Epistle to the Corinthians, NICNT [Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19871, 581-Z).