temporal local causal purpose result conditional concessive comparative N~un’*~
subject object apposition direct address Adjectival’*
modifier
when?
where?
why?
why?
why?
when?
how?
how?
who or what?
who or what?
who or what?
who?
when, after, before beside, above, below because, for, since
that, so that, in order that so, so that, hence
if, provided, unless
although, in spite of the fact as, just as, likewise
who, which, that whom, what, that
(identifies persons, objects)
who or what? who, which, that
Is all this analysis worth the trouble? We sincerely believe so, for asking such structural questions enables the interpreter to identifjr the flow of the text’s argu- ment, the associations, and the inter-relationships not otherwise evident. The inter- preter is able to perceive the logic of a writer’s argument, breaks in thought, unusual features, and directions that are easily missed without the time and effort spent to analyze the structure in these ways.
Verbs
The next step in the grammatical study of a passage concentrates on the im-
pact ofthe verbs.The complex verb systems of the biblical languages influence the meaning of sentences in several different ways. Understood in conjunction with their contexts, verbs designate the mood, aspect, time, kind, and voice of the action
‘42Adverbial clauses modify or qualify verbs, or occasionally adjectives, in the ways listed. For example, the first shows when the action of the verb occurs, the second where, the seventh shows the circumstances despite which the action occurs, etc.
‘43Noun clauses, as the name suggests, function as nouns. In the sentence, “Professors who love to ski seek teaching posts in Colorado,” the entire clause “professors who love to ski” functions as the subject of the verb “seek.” It operates like a noun in the sentence structure.
Yn similar fashion adjectival clauses or phrases modify or describe nouns or pronouns.
210 Introduction to Biblical Interpretation
expressed. 145 The mood of the verb in each main clause indicates whether the writer was making a statement, asking a question, giving a command, expressing a possi- bility, or making a wish. The interpreter must understand each sentence consistent with the mood expressed. It makes a big difference whether a sentence asserts a fact, merely expresses a possibility, or asks a question.‘% Interestingly, in James’ para- graph above the predominant mood is the imperative. Each of the five sentences contains a command. The only assertions come in verses 5 and 8. After command- ing the person who lacks wisdom to pray, James asserts in 15, “and it will be given to him”-a statement that carries the force of a promise. Verse 8 certifies the nature of the person who doubts God. While a careful reading of the English text makes most of these mood-uses clear, students should verify their observations with good commentaries.
Influenced by the field of linguistics, an increasing number of biblical interpreters recognize the need to classify verbs according to their aspect.147 Although tense in English mainly concerns time, in other languages-Hebrew and Greek are examples- the tense of a verb primarily indicates “kind of actionnllUI and aspect.149 That is, in the biblical languages tense specifies the kind of action fi-om the perspective ofthe writer.
It indicates whether the writer or speaker conceives of the action of the verb as a completed state (stative), still in process (imperfective), or an unspecified whole (per- fective). English typically employs perfect or simple past tenses to convey stative action:
She has read that book; or She read that book. English marks a continuous action with present progressive forms: She is reading that book. An unspecified kind of action might be expressed by: She reads a book. The action in reality (Ahionsart) may or not conform to the writer’s conception, but that is not the issue. Aspect (tense) specifies how the writer presents the nature of the action.150 For example, note John’s
145Waltke and O’Connor (Zntroduction, 344) provide an illuminating look at the Hebrew verbal system in their analysis of the form wuy&Z&, conventionally translated “And they smote it” uudg 18). They note this one form, the combination of a conjunction and a verb, expresses: (1) the action of smiting; (2) the subject of the action; (3) the object; (4) active voice; (5) case frame (verb is transi- tive); (6) type of action (Hebrew hiph$-causative rather than simple action; (7) time of action- smiting already past; (8) quality of action-it has an endpoint; and (9) mood-action is an indepen- dent assertion.
‘%ompare: “This dog bites;” “This dog may bite;” and “Will this dog bite?”
14’For elaborate assessments of aspect in the Greek language of the NT see S. E. Porter, Verbal Aspect in the Greek of the New Testament with Refmence to Tense and Mood (New York: Peter Lang, 1989); and B. M. Fanning, Verbal Aspect in New Testament Greek (Oxford: Clarendon, 190). A briefer analysis occurs in Porter, Idioms, 20-6, the first grammar that attempts to incorporate verbal aspect as a major ingredient in its analysis of NT Greek.
‘4PThe technical term grammarians give to this is the German word Aktiomurt. It refers to the objective nature of the action.
‘*?Strictly speaking, Hebrew does not have tenses in the English language sense of categories for specifying the time of the action of a verb. But the language does employ forms for perfect and imperfect action. In specific contexts both may denote past, present, or future time. See Waltke and O’Connor, Introduction, 347-350, 461-66, 481-95.
15’For example, we may say, “It has been raining all day.” We specify an imperfective kind of action (continuous), even though in reality it has only rained off and on during the day-with long spells of no rain at all.
____I .__,_, I __._ “~.x”-~.----..l.-I^II-~--~---~~-~ ____
General Rules of Hermeneutics-Prose
.__. l,_l.~--~“.~---l~.-.----~
211 words in Jn 1:29: “On the next day, he sees Jesus coming to him, and he says. . . .”
This is our literal translation where the italicized words highlight what grammarians call the “historical present.” For his desired effect of creating a sense of vividness for his readers, John presents past actions as now happening (continuous action).lsl Hebrew verbal systems also allow for another phenomenon under the cat- egory of aspect: causative constructions. At times a writer depicts an agent not sim- ply as performing an action; the agent actually causes the action to occur. In English we employ additional verbal forms to convey causation: “They make me eat spin- ach.” Or we may add a prefix to a verb. Compare “They closed the door” to “They enclosed the yard” (They caused the yard to be closed in). The Hebrew language has special adjustments to the verb form to alter “They eat spinach” to “They cause to eat spinach.” In Greenberg’s words, “The hif’il is commonly causative: the sub- ject makes the object do the action or be in the state expressed by the qal verb; qal
‘he remembered,’ hifCi1 ‘he reminded’ (lit., ‘made remember’).n152
Besides aspect and kind of action, verb forms indicate other details that con- tribute to correct interpretation. In places, verbs (or various other syntactical tech- niques) mark the time of action (past, present, or future). And a verb’s voice shows whether its subject performs the action (active voice: “Mary cut the pie”), is acted upon (passive voice: “The pie was cut by Mary”), or acts in reference to itself (middle voice in Greek often indicated by reflexive pronouns in English: “Mary cut herself a piece of pie”) .153 Or the verb may have no voice but merely specify a state of being, as in, “That cat is very large.” Because verbs communicate all of these types of information, the careful interpreter must evaluate each one closely in light of the context and weigh all the nuances the verbal form indicates. For those who do not know the biblical languages, there is no substitute, again, for literal translations and reliable commentaries that evaluate the verbal elements.
Connectives
The discussion of important grammatical elements must include connectives.
Connectives (usually conjunctions, but also relative pronouns) occur at the begin- ning of sentences to link them with what precedes and within sentences to indicate the relationship between the words, phrases, and clauses through which ideas are communicated.15* The previous discussion of the relationship between main and
15*Most English versions obscure this effect. The NIV has, “ . . . John saw Jesus coming toward him and said. . . .)I To conform to modern English the NASB has a similar translation, but it indicates such instances of the historical present by appending an asterisk to the verb.
15*M. Greenberg, Introduction to Hebrew (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 19651, 43. Qul and hif ‘il refer to different Hebrew verbal stems. Their meaning need not detain us at this point.
153The Greek language has “voices” similar to English. Hebrew employs “binyans,” similar to conjugations, which also indicate voice. The three voices in Hebrew could be noted as active, passive, and reflexive. See Waltke and O’Connor, Introduction, 354f.
‘54English, Hebrew, and Greek use a variety of connectives to indicate subordination. Hebrew often coordinates items by using waws. (Readers without Hebrew can ignore that comment.) For those wanting further insight see R. J. Williams, Hebrew Syntax: An Outline (Toronto: University of Toronto, 1967), 482, 484; and Waltke and O’Connor, Introduction, 632-55. *
212 Introduction to Biblical Interpretation
subordinate clauses already underscored the significance of connectives as indica- tors of how the different parts of a sentence fit together. Although connectives are often small and seemingly insignificant, they exert an influence on meaning that far exceeds their size. Like joints and junctions in a plumbing system of pipes, they regulate the flow of a text’s argument. The following chart presents the vast scope of connectives that the interpreter must note in order to understand precisely the meaning of a passage.15’
TYPES SAMPLE CONNECTIVES
Temporal or Chronological Local or Geographical Logical
Time:
Place:
Direction:
Continuative:
Contrast:
after, as long as, before, now, meanwhile, since, then, until, when, whenever, while
Purpose:
Result:
where, beside, upon, above, under, below, on, over, at
to, toward, from
and, also, besides, both . . . and, furthermore, moreover, likewise, not only . . . but also, whereupon although, but, however, much more, nevertheless, not only . . . but also, yet, otherwise, still, whereas
in order that, that, so that
so that, as a result, hence, consequently, so, then
Inference:
Reason:
therefore, thus, then, wherefore as, because, for, inasmuch as, since, whereas, why
Condition:
Concession:
as if, as though, if, lest, provided, providing, unless
although, yet, in spite of, though, unless, while
Modal Agency/Means:
Manner:
Comparison:
by, through, by means of as
also, as, as . . . so, just as . . . so, indeed, in fact, likewise, so also, so as, moreover, than
Emphatic
Example:
Emphasis:
for, for example, indeed, in fact, namely indeed, only, finally
rS5For particles and conjunctions in Greek see BDF §§ 438-57 and Porter, Idioms, 204-17 Andersen, Sentence, surveys the various ways Hebrew accomplishes connections.
General Rules of Hermeneutics-Prose 213
Adjectives and Adverbs
Several other grammatical items require the attention of the careful interpreter, namely acljectives and adverbs. These modifiers adjust the sense of a noun or verb in some significant way. Waltke and O’Connor cite Hos 1:6 to display a wide use of adverbs in Hebrew.‘56 They translate: “Call her name Not-Pitied, for indeed I will not continue any lottger to have pity on the House of Israel.” Each italicized word represents a Hebrew adverb, one giving time, several negating, and one providing emphasis. That is, “any longer” suggests that God had shown compassion on Is- rael, but would “not” do so “any longer.” Thus one may now characterize the na- tion as those “Not-pitied any fonder.” The termination of God’s pity merits an emphatic “indeed.” Another example illustrates several adjectives: “They will hear of your&r-eat name and your strong hand and your outstretched arm” (1 Kgs 8:42).
Each provides additional color to the noun it modifies. These Hebrew adjectives are similar to those used in English and Greek. Often, though, Hebrew performs the function of description through “construct” phrases to which we referred ear- lier [as in “the royal seed” (lit. seed of royalty; 2 Kgs 25:25), the “royal throne” (lit.
throne of royalty; 1 Kgs 1:46)], or even through apposition [“the deceitful tongue”
(lit. tongue of deceit; Psa 120:2)].15’
In Ja 1:2 discussed above, the writer significantly strengthens the initial com- mand by the inclusion of the Greek adjective “all,” translated “pure” in the NIV.I~~
To “Consider it pure joy whenever you face trials of many kinds” is far more de- manding than just to “Consider it joy.” Without the adjective “pure” this com- mand would be unclear about the quality or amount of joy the writer required.
Similarly, the adverb ugenerouslyn in verse 5 adds a vital dimension to God’s giv- ing. He does not simply give, James avers; God gives~enerously to all who ask him for wisdom.
Pronouns
Students must not underestimate the significance of several other seemingly routine grammatical items: the use of pronouns and whether nouns and pronouns are singular or plural. It is important to determine the antecedents of all pronouns to ascertain to whom or to what they refer. The marking of pronouns, both their case usage and whether singular or plural, is often clearer in Hebrew and Greek than in English. Hebrew marks personal pronouns as to number, person, and gender. In addition, Hebrew employs demonstrative pronouns (this, that), interrogatives and indefinites (who, what, whoever, how, why, where), and relative pronouns (who, whom, which). Greek, likewise, employs a wide array of pronoun types: personal,
‘%Waltke and O’Connor, Introduction, 657.
r5Waltke and O’Connor, Introduction, 255f.
‘YPThe NIV “pure” here is preferable to the potentially ambiguous “all” where “all” may appear to be a direct object of the verb “consider.” The point is not to consider all [things] as joy; rather, consider [it1 pure joy when.
214 Introduction to Biblical Interpretation
relative, demonstrative, intensive (as in the same man or the.man
himself),posses- sive (his, her, my), reflexive (yourself), reciprocal (love
one another),interrogative, and indefinite.
Whereas the pronoun “you” may be either singular or plural in English, Greek (as well as Hebrew) makes a clear distinction. Twice in 1 Corinthians Paul identifies believers as the temple of the Holy Spirit. Warning against the serious dangers of sexual immorality in 6:18-19, he reminds them that each Christian’s physical body is a temple of God indwelt by the Holy Spirit. However, Paul’s reference to God’s temple in 3:16-17 pictures the corporate group of believers-namely, the entire church-as God’s temple indwelt by the Spirit. Second-person plural pronouns make this distinction clear. Paul uses the same temple analogy in two distinct ways: to refer both to individuals and to the entire church. Unfortunately, many sincere believ- ers have missed the point of Paul’s warning in chapter three not to destroy God’s temple. Thinking of their individual body as God’s temple, they understand Paul’s admonition as a call to personal piety; they do not perceive Paul’s true intent-a plea not to allow divisions to destroy the church.159 At the conclusion of both letters to Timothy the writer says, “Grace be with you.” We might mistakenly think these are Paul’s concluding benedictions to an individual, Timothy. Actually, the Greek pro- nouns are plural, so in fact, he invokes God’s blessing upon the entire church.160
The specific distinctions that Greek relative pronouns make between singular and plural, as well as between masculine, feminine, and neuter, provide a precision not available in our generic English “who” and “what.“16i Literal English transla- tions of Jesus’ genealogy in Matthew do not clarify that Jesus is only the child of Mary, not of both Joseph and Mary. Mt 1:16 reads, “.
. .and Jacob the father of Joseph, the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus, who is called Christ.” Yet, the Greek text uses a feminine singular relative pronoun that restricts “whom” to Mary alone.162
Many such grammatical details exist in the biblical languages but do not always appear in English translations. By their very nature translations are the interpretations of the translators and are limited in their ability to bring out all nuances. After all, no two languages ever mirror each other. Hence, accuracy and thorough understanding demand that all interpretations be checked against the original languages to be certain they are consistent with the grammar of the text. As we have repeatedly urged, students must surround themselves with a range of good translations and key biblical commentaries that provide insight into the nuances of grammar.163
Wf. Fee, I Corinthians, 146-50; 260-66.
‘%outhern American English has a colloquial mechanism for plural you: “y’all.” “Thou” and
“you” of Old English (ca. 1000) also had this function, as do other languages today.
%So the one pronoun “who” can serve in all these ways: “Who is my neighbor?” “Who are those children?” “She is the woman who taught me Greek. (( “The man who races cars lives down the street.” Like English, Hebrew also employs undeclined relative pronouns, e.g., ‘Sr and S.
16ZThe NCV avoids the ambiguity by saying, “ . . . Joseph was the husband of Mary, and Mary was the mother of Jesus. Jesus is called the Christ.”
‘@The bibliography lists the best resources.