Old Testament Narratives

Nearly half of the OT consists of a great variety of narratives; however, this brief survey will be limited to the most common types of narratives.13 Now the OT

8cf. Ryken, How to Read, 33: “Narrative is the dominant form in the Bible. . . What this means to readers of the Bible is that the more they know about how stories work, the more they will enjoy and understand vast portions of the Bible.”

9Most of what follows derives from the modem discipline of form criticism. For OT students, two good introductions to this method are G. M. Tucker, Form Crfticism of the Old Testament (Phila- delphia: Fortress, 1971); and K. Koch, L%e Growth ofBiblical T+adtion (New York: Scribner’s, 1969).

Cf. also the more technical theoretical essay by R. Knierim, “Old Testament Form Criticism Reconsid- ered,” Znt 27 (1973): 43%7.

“Though Bible readers commonly call OT narratives “history,” we have opted for the literary term “narrative” because “history” describes the content of the material, “narrative” its literary form. Of course, in so’ doing, we still affirm the historic&y of the Bible.

“G. Fee and D. Stuart, How to Read the BibkforAll Its Worth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1982), 73; cf. S. Bar-Efrat, Narrative Art in the Bible (Sheffield: Almond, 1989), 9. See also the helpful discus- sion in Ryken, How to Read, 33-73, or the longer treatment in Bar-Efrat, Narrative Art.

‘9. B. Gabel and C. B. Wheeler, i%e Bible as Literature: An Introduction, 2d ed. (New York/

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 19-20.

13For additional details, see the comprehensive surveys and concluding glossaries in Coats, Gen- esis, l-10; B. 0. Long, 1 Kings, FOTL 9 (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19841, 1-8, 243-65; and, less compre- hensively, Ryken, How to Read, 75-85.

262 Introduction to Biblical Interpretation

itself offers no classification of narratives, so the terms we use here are based on the descriptions used for comparable ancient and modem narratives. In some cases we adopt labels widely accepted by scholars; in others, we have developed our own.

Students should regard these terms as descriptive, not technical.‘*

Reports

The simplest biblical narrative is the report: a “brief, self-contained narration, usually in third-person style, about a single event or situation in the past.“15 It narrates what happened, presenting the facts in a style without literary embellishment. OT examples include reports about tribal settlements in Canaan (Judg 1:16-17), royal construction projects (1 Kgs 7:2-S; 12:25), and military campaigns (1 Kgs 14:25- 26; 2 Kgs 24:2Ob-25:7). Occasionally, reports serve an aetiological purpose, that is, they explain how a certain place acquired its name (Gen 35:8; Exod 15:23; et al.).

The OT has several kinds of reports. An anecdote is a report that details an event or experience in the life of a person. l6 It represents private biography rather than public history. It may report conversations and use imaginative descriptions. Examples of anecdotes include the fl-cities King Solomon gave to King Hiram of Tyre (1 Kgs 9:10-14) and the episode in which Elisha became Elijah’s disciple (1 Kgs 19:19-21).17

A battle report recounts a military clash between opposing forces and its out- come, whether of victory or defeat.l8 Among the Bible’s many battle reports are defeats of the Amorites (Num 21:21-24), Moabites (Judg 3:26-30), Arameans (2 Sam 10:15-19), two Midianite kings (Judg 8:10-12), and the Canaanite city of Ai (Josh 7:2-5). A construction report, on the other hand, recounts the construction of important buildings or objects and describes their size, materials, and decoration in great detail. The most f&nil& examples are the construction reports about the taber- nacle in the wilderness (Exod 36%37:16) and the temple in Jerusalem (1 Kgs 6-7).

Two other reports relate special experiences. Told in tit- or third-person, the dream report details an individual’s experience of a dream. Two stylistic features help ident@ this genre: repetition of the verb “to dream” and use of the phrase “and behold” (Heb. tihinnth) to demarcate major changes in the dream’s subject mat- ter. Usually a separate, subsequent scene interprets the experience for the awakened

140ne must also remember that genre categories describe two levels-both an individual bibli- cal passage as well as the larger context it serves. The reason is that one genre (e.g., a history) may contain several other specific genres within it (e.g., a historical story, an anecdote, a battle report, etc.).

By the same token, one genre (e.g., a song) may be a component of a larger genre (e.g., a historical story).

ISLong, 2 Kings, 5; cf. Coats, Genesis, 10. Long labels a short report a “notice,” a longer one an

“account.” For ancient analogies, see the Siloam inscription and report of Egyptian expeditions in ANET, 227-28, 229-30, 321, etc.

‘6Coats, Genes& 10; Long, 1 Kings, 243-44.

“An annul is a report, often part of royal records, that details chronologically events concern- ing an institution like the monarchy or the temple. According to Long (1 Kings, 243), the OT has no annals, although some texts may be based on them (e.g., 1 Kgs 3:l; 9:15-23; 2 Chr 115-12).

lRFor the following discussion of reports, we acknowledge dependence on Long, 2 Kings, 244, 247, 248.

Genres of the Old Testament 263

dreamer. OT dream reports include those concerning Joseph (Gen 37:5- 1 1 ), his two prisoner friends (40:9-11, 1617), the Egyptian Pharaoh (41:1-8), and a Midianite soldier (Judg 7:13-14).19

An epiphany report, by contrast, reports an experience in which God or the angel of the LORD appears to someone, often to convey a message. Typically, the verb “to appear, become visible” (Heb. YP~, niph.) signals the beginning of such epiphanies. They played an important role in the lives of the patriarchs: Abraham (Gen 12:7; 17:1-21; 18:1-33) and Isaac (26:2-5, 24), Moses (Exod 3:2-12), Samson’s parents (Judg 13), and King Solomon (1 Kgs 3:4-l 5; 9: l-9). One should describe the experience of Jacob at Bethel as a dream epiphany since it involves God’s appearance in a dream (Gen 28:12-16; cf. 48:34; Mt 2:19-20).20

The genre hhot+af stories are reports written with more literary elaboration than an ordinary report.21 They develop a rudimentary plot (moving fkom tension to resolution), record dialogues and speeches by characters, and include dramatic literary touches. Like the simple report, they aim to recount an event, but they do so with an appealing written flair. Two excellent examples are the stories of Saul’s emergence as king ( 1 Sam 11: l-l 1) and of Ahab’s co&ontation with the prophet Micaiah ben Imlah ( 1 Kgs 22:1-37; see also Judg 9:1-21; 1 Kgs 12:1-20;

20: 143).

Authors or editors may compile a series of reports and consciously structure them to underscore connections between events and to sound certain themes. The result is a history, a lengthy document that focuses on a particular subject or histori- cal era.22 Explicitly or implicitly, the authors/editors convey their evaluation of the sequence of events reported. The purpose of a history is to apply instruction or legitimation from the past to situations or institutions in the author/editor’s own day.23 This genre includes the book of Kings, the book of Chronicles, and a hypo- thetical document called the “court history of David” (2 Sam 9-20; 1 Kgs 1-2).24

Finally, we mention a subtype of history, the tpzemoir. Written in the first-person, a memoir reports incidents in an individual’s life in order to portray the history, not of the writer, but of the era in which he or she lived. Scholars believe the memoirs

19Cf also the dreams of Nebuchadnezzar in the narrative sections of the book of Daniel (Dan 2:1-11; 4:&g).

Inexplicably, Long reckons all divine appearances as dream epiphanies even when the con- text either says nothing about a dream or, in the cases of Abraham (Gen 18) and Moses (Exod 3), actually specifies their nondream circumstances (I Kfngs, 248).

*‘Long, 1 Kings, 6-7.

22Long, 1 Kings, 7-8.

*5cholars commonly assume that palace scribes responsible for recording affairs of state pre- pared such histories. Cf. Long, I Kings, 8: “The OT is unrivaled in the ancient Near East for its use of this literary genre.”

24Most scholars believe that the “court history” and Kings later formed part of a larger historical work, the “Deuteronomistic History,” edited during Israel’s exile in Babylon (sixth century B.C.) and encompassing the books from Deuteronomy to 2 Kings; cf. M. Noth, iiberlieferungsgeschichrliche Stud&n, 2d ed. (Tiibingen: Niemeyer, 1957); ET: I;be Deuteronomic H&tory, JSOTSup 15 (Sheffield:

JSOT Press, 1981). For a popular introduction to this theory with bibliography, see T. E. Fretheim, kuteronomic History (Nashville: Abingdon, 1983).

264 Introduction to Biblical Interpretation

of Ezra (Ezra 7:27-9:15)

and Nehemiah (Neh l:l-7:73a; 12:27-31) comprise part of the books that bear their names.25

Principles of Interpretation-Reports

Note the following principles for interpreting reports:

1. In simple reports the focus should fall on the subject and how it contrib- utes to the themes of the larger context.

2. Reports tend to stress factual matters (what happened, who did what, etc.).

Readers, thus, must accept that they probably provide little devotional content. The exceptions to this rule are reports in which God participates (e.g., dream reports, epiphany reports). For example, Jacob’s dream report (Gen 28) stressed God’s per- sonal relationship with Jacob and assured him of God’s presence on his journey.

Such truths certainly have implications for today.

3. Typical of narratives, reports make their points indirectly. The reader must ask: What is this text trying to say? What subtle signals has the writer woven into the account to convey the message? The student will probably find more interpre- tive clues in historical stories and histories than in simple reports. For example, 1 Kgs 22 obviously portrays the prophet Mica.& ben Imlah as the courageous hero persecuted by a corrupt Ahab. In so doing, it condemns Ahab’s nominal Mosaic religion and, by implication, all other examples of less than fully committed faith.

4. Histories are like orchestras-a series of individual voices (i.e., reports) com- bine to sound common themes. To find those themes, the reader must analyze the emphases of the individual reports to see what they share in common. For example, compared to Rings, Chronicles focuses on Judah, David’s patronage of Israel’s wor- ship, and the importance of the temple. Whereas Rings evaluates the Israelite mon- archy as a spiritual disaster, Chronicles seeks to highlight its positive spiritual contribution: its establishment of proper temple worship. Written for post-exilic Judah, the book reviews Israel’s history in order to urge its audience to worship Yahweh obediently.26

Heroic Narrative

A more common OT genre is the heroic

narrative?’

This consists of a series of episodes that focus on the life and exploits of a hero whom people later consider

Z5See conveniently, H. G. M. Williamson, EZYU, Nehemiah, WBC 16 (Waco, TX Word, 19851, xxiv-xxxii. Cf. also the illuminating literary treatment of Ezra and Nehemiah in T. C. Eskenazi, In An Age of Prose, SBLMS 36 (Atlanta: Scholars, 1988).

‘6w. S. IaSor, D. A. Hubbard, and F. W. Bush, Old Testament Survey (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.

19821, 633-37.

27Ryken, How to Read, 75-80. For this category, Coats (Genesis, 6) and Long (I Kings, 250) prefer the term “heroic saga.” Despite the currency that the term “saga” enjoys among scholars, we have bypassed it for several reasons. First, it derives from a certain kind of traditional Icelandic literature

Genres of the

Old Testament 265

significant

enough to remember. Typically, such heroic narratives include some ac- count of the person’s birth, marriage, life work, and death. They place particular em- phasis on the hero’s displays of virtue and extraordinary heroism. As Ryken observes,

Such stories spring Tom one of the most universal impulses of literature-the desire to embody accepted norms of behavior or representative struggles in the story of a character whose experience is typical of people in general.28

Heroic narratives may seek to inculcate such behavioral norms by both positive and negative examples. A hero who failed offers as powerful a lesson about important life values as one who succeeded.

The life of Moses (Exodus-Deuteronomy) offers the best OT example of this genre.29 At length, it depicts his birth, marriage, sense of vocation, exploits as leader and lawgiver, and his death. 3o Certainly, his life embodies both the struggles of Israel’s national life during that period and the ideal of consummate loyalty to God.

Again, one may consider the book of Judges as a collection of heroic narratives.31 The stories of Deborah (Judg Q-5), Gideon (Judg 6-8), and Samson (Judg 13-16) par- ticularly show traits of this genre. They symbolize Israel’s dual struggles during that period: invasions from outside and idolatry inside. Their successes and failures em- body Israel’s own national struggles with political survival and faithfulness to God.32 The

epic

represents a subvariety of heroic narrative since it tells the heroic exploits of a virtuous hero. 33 Two unique traits set it apart: its greater length and its

whose comparability to biblical narratives we question. Second, its definition by scholars seems to downplay the historical value of the biblical texts discussed, a judgment that we do not share. For additional critique of the term, see J. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven: Yale University Press, 19751, 131-37.

28Ryken, How to Read, 75.

%f. F. E. Greenspahn, “From Egypt to Canaan: A Heroic Narrative,” in A. Gileadi, ed., Zsruel’s Apogasy and Restoration: Essays in Honor of Roland K. Hat&on (Grand Rapids: Baker, 19881, l-8. In the NT, the Gospel accounts of the life of Jesus show traces of this genre, although they focus more on his teaching than on his biography. See our discussion of the gospel genre to follow.

x’Knierlm even argues that the genre of the whole Pentateuch is the biography of Moses with particular emphasis on his unique role as mediator at Mt. Sinai; cf. R. P. Knierim, “The Composition of the Pentateuch,” in K. H. Richards, ed., SBLsP24 (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 19851, 409-415. For exposi- tion of other examples, see B. 0. Long, ed., Images of Man and Gad: Old Testament Short Stories in Literary Focus (Sheffield: Almond, 19fil).

)lSo Ryken, How to Read, 80, conceding, however, that “certain features of the book resemble epic” (on which, see below). Cf. the stimulating literary analysis by K. R. R. Gros Louis, “The Book of Judges,” in K. R. R. Gros Louis et al., eds., Liferay Interpretations of Biblical Narratives 1 (Nashville:

Abingdon, 1974), 14162.

3Within the book of Judges, however, their lives contribute to its main theme, i.e., Israel’s need for a king to stave off invasions, to end tribal rivalries, and to ensure religious fidelity (Judg 17:6; l&l;

I9:l; 21:25); so R. K. Harrison, Introduction to the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 19691, 692-93.

33Ryken, How to Read, 78-81; cf. the typology of epics applied to ancient Near Eastern ex- amples in A. Berlin, “Ethnopoetry and the Enmerkar Epics, ” in J. M. Sasson, ed., Studies in Literature from the Ancient Near East Dedicated to Samuel Noah Kramer (New Haven: American Oriental Soci- ety, 19841, 17-24.

,-._ .._ I_ _..,_ _ ,,._ -I_ ,._..” “^_‘..)_ ;_^“,___,“.I_.__~_“.,,~.,

266 Introduction to Biblical Interpretation

..I ..,_. “._.

magnification of the hero’s exploits to a greater scale of importance. An epic dis- plays a strong nationalistic interest with the hero representing the destiny, not just of a family, but of a whole nation. In other words, it narrates events that the entire nation admires in retrospect as epoch-making. Hence, its themes are large-scale ones-conquest, kingdom, warfare, and dominion. Since epics portray a nation’s formative history, they abound with historical allusions.

In addition, the epic involves supernatural settings, events, and characters.

Events play themselves out in a cosmic arena, which includes both heaven and earth, and supernatural agents participate directly in human history on earth.

Again, the plot of an epic is mildly episodic (it presents separate incidents rather than a chain of connected events) and often aims at a central feat or quest by the hero.

The OT has several sections that fit the description of an epic. Genesis l-l 1 offers a cosmic

epic

because it narrates the formative story, not just of a nation, but of the cosmos and its human inhabitants.” Supernatural elements abound, for God participates directly with Adam and Eve in the garden (Gen 3) and with Noah in the great flood (Gen 6-9). Later, he scatters people across the earth and separates them into distinct language groups (Gen 11). The genealogies of Adam (Gen 5) and Noah (Gen 10) also evidence a variation of the nationalistic motif: interest in the origins of earth’s major ethnic groups.

As for historical allusions, we observe a variety of them: references to the be- ginning of human occupations (Gen 4:20-22), the giant race called the Nephilim (Gen 6:4; cf. Num 13:32-33), and the foundation of ancient cities (Gen 10: 10-12;

cf. 11:2-3). In these texts the hero is not an individual but a series of individuals, yet, in context, they serve to represent early humanity as a whole. Again, recall that toward the end of this epic, the narrative focus narrows to the Semites, the racial ancestors of the Hebrews (Gen ll:lO-32).

We classify Gen 12-36 as an ancestral

epic.35

It certainly shows nationalistic themes-the destiny of Israel and her ownership of the land of Canaan. Indeed, the programmatic promise to Abram (Gen 12:1-3) predicts Israel’s destiny as the in- strument of blessing for all other ethnic groups. Though not prominent, super- natural elements are nevertheless present. Yahweh actively participates, appearing to the patriarchs (Gen 17:l; 18:17-33; 26:2; 35:1,7), raining down destruction on Sodom, and giving elderly Sarah a son (21:1-2).36

As for historical allusions, in our view Abraham’s defeat of Kedorlaomer’s military coalition (Gen 14:1-16) recalls an ancient event long-remembered in the

“Cf. Coats, Genesis, 5-6 (“the primeval saga”). An ancient Near Eastern parallel, the “Epic of Atrahasis,” lends some cultural support to our categorization of Gen l-11 as epic. A good case can be made that those two texts follow a similar narrative structure; cf. I. M. Kikawada and A. Quinn, Before Abraham Was (Nashville: Abingdon, 1985).

“Cf. Coats, Genesis, 6 (“family saga”).

%f. also Lot’s angelic rescuers (19:1, 15) and Jacob’s mysterious wrestling match (31:22-32).

“Cf. G. Wenham, Genesis l-15, WBC 1 (Waco, TX: Word, 1987), 319 (“the evi- dence suggests that this chapter is based on one of the oldest literary sources in Genesis”);

Coats, Genesis, 317 (cf. also pp. 11%22), whose genre glossary lists Gen 14:1-24 under “annals” with

Genres of the Old Testament 267

region. 37 Granted, the patriarchal narratives involve a sequence of four heroes rather than one. Nevertheless, their story traces Israel’s national roots and defines her na- tional destiny. Further, the idea of promise that drives the plot of Gen 12-36 (Gen

12:1-3; etc.) favorably compares to the motif of the typical epic quest (the quest for land and national destiny).38

Prophet Stoy

The

prophet story

recounts events in the life of a prophet, particularly

those

that demonstrate virtues worthy of emulation. 39 Its specific purpose is to edifjr its audience by presenting the prophet as a model of proper conduct or as a standard of judgment for political and religious criticism.40 The narratives about Elijah and Elisha (1 Kgs 17-2 Kgs 9; 2 Kgs 13:14-21) and Daniel (Dan l-6) best illustrate prophet stories.41 For example, Elijah and Elisha model perseverance in the face of royal political pressure and offer a standard by which to gauge religious apostasy. In prophet stories about Elisha miracles sometimes play a prominent role (e.g., Elisha’s healing of the Shunarnmite woman’s son [2 Kgs 4:8-371 and his rescue of the sunken ax head [ 6: l-71).

Similarly, Daniel shows faithfulness in the face of pressures from foreign overlords like Nebuchadnezzar. He also models an unwavering confidence in God’s sovereign protection of his people. The book of Jonah also fits in this category, although it instructs through a negative example.42 In our view, its literary style intentionally imitates the prophetic stories about Elijah. Again, it clearly has a di- dactic aim: to teach the reader about God-honoring attitudes toward non-Israelites (see Jonah 4:10-11)?3

the definition “a report from the archives of the royal court”; and K. A. Kitchen, 7&e Bible In Its World (Downers Grove: Intervarsity, 1977), 59-X%, who believes the patriarchal narratives closely resemble historical works from the ancient Near East. For a more critical view, see G. von Rad, Gent&s, OTL (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960, 170-76.

with good reason, Ryken (How to Read, 80) also finds epics in the book of Joshua (e.g., “the conquest epic”) and the rise of King David (1 Sam 16-2 Sam 8). For an insightful literary study of the story of David, see D. M. GUM, Ihe Story of King David: Genre and Zntetpretation, JSOTSup 6 (Sheffield: JSOT, 1978).

B“Prophet story” replaces the often-used term “legend” after the suggestion of R. M. Hals,

“Legend,” in Coats, ed., Saga 55 (cf. also pp. 45-51); similarly, J. J. Scullion, “Marchen, Sage, Legende: Towards a Clarification of Some Literary Terms Used by Old Testament Scholars,” VT34 (1984): 334.

@For possible subcategories of prophetic stories, see A. Rofe, 7he Prophetical Stories (Jerusa- lem: Magnes Press, 1988).

4’Cf. the illuminating comparison of Elijah and Elisha to Shakespeare’s Hamlet by K. R. R. Gros Louis, “Elijah and Elisha,” in Gros Louis, et al., Literury Zntep-etutions 1, 177-90. For the Daniel narra- tives, see J. Goldingay, Daniel, WJK 30 (Dallas: Word, 1989) 320-22.

42L. C. Allen, 7%e Books of Joel, Obadiah, Jonah, and Micah, NICOT (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1976) 175.

43Similarly, Allen, The Books ofJoef, 190-91 (“the unwelcome truth of God’s sovereign compas- sion for foreigners and beasts”).