RESEARCH IN EXERCISE SCIENCE
2. Experimental research
manipulates a variable or variables to investigate the effect on some
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outcome
provides conclusions about why an effect occurs
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There are also three primary forms of experimental research: longitudinal, cross-sectional, and sequential (7,30).
1. The longitudinal research method is the study of change over time:
probably the most reliable of the three types of experimental research,
•
because societal and technological factors usually do not have a large effect on the results
learning or familiarization is often a problem because repeated testing
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may affect the data because individuals learn how to take the test 2. The cross-sectional research method requires the collection of data on
individuals of different characteristics who represent different attributes being investigated (e.g., age, gender, race, fi tness levels):
allows all the data to be collected at once
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Descriptive research A type of research that describes specific characteristics about a question or problem.
Experimental research A type of research that requires the manipulation of at least one variable to answer a question or problem.
Longitudinal research A type of research that involves the study of change over time.
Cross-sectional research A type of research that requires the collection of data on individuals of different characteristics who represent different attributes being investigated.
Sequential research A type of research that combines both cross-sectional and longitudinal research.
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➤
Thinking CriticallyHow does basic and applied research contribute to our improved understand- ing of health, physical activity, exercise, sport, and athletic performance?
(Continued)
I N T E R V I E W
Jack W. Berryman,
PhD, FACSM, Professor of Medical History at the University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington. Jack currently serves as the ACSM Historian.Brief Introduction
I began my college education as a health and physical education major at Lock Haven University in Pennsylvania. In the early 1970s, I completed two master’s degrees at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst: one in exercise science and the other in history. During this time, I became involved in the early stages of the exercise science and sport studies move- ment. I completed a PhD at the University of Maryland in physical educa- tion and history, and I joined the University of Washington faculty in 1975. In 1992, I was voted a fellow in the American Academy of Kinesiology and Physical Education and in 1994, was named ACSM’s offi - cial historian. Two of my books of special interest are Sport and Exercise Science: Essays in the History of Sports Medicine (1992) and Out of Many, One: A History of the American College of Sports Medicine (1995). I have been honored as ACSM’s D. B. Dill Historical Lecturer an unprecedented two times, in 1994 and 2004.
➤ What is ACSM’s importance in the development of exercise science?
Because of ACSM’s unique multidisciplinary membership that included physicians, physical educators, exercise scientists, and many other professions directly related to the health benefi ts of exercise, the organization became a leader in the fi eld by the late 1950s. ACSM’s annual meet- ings, along with its signifi cant journals and books, as well as position stands and scientifi c round- tables, put ACSM in the forefront of health pro- motion and exercise science very quickly. With a strong scientifi c and clinical base, the ACSM has continued to be the most respected authority in the fi eld of exercise science. The ACSM has
played a leadership role in the National Coalition for Promoting Physical Activity (1995) and in the writing of Physical Activity and Health: A Report of the Surgeon General (1996). The College has been a dominant force in the institutionalization of exercise in the prevention, diagnosis, and treat- ment of cardiac and other degenerative diseases such as diabetes, osteoporosis, and obesity.
➤ What is ACSM’s importance in the development of sport and athletic per- formance?
Although ACSM’s early emphasis was on health and fi tness, the ACSM began to move more in the direction of clinical sports medicine and athletic performance might be affected for reasons
•
other than the variables being measured (e.g., societal or technological factors) 3. The sequential research method combines
the longitudinal and cross- sectional methods:
involves studying several different samples
•
( cross-sectional) over several years (longitudinal)
allows individuals differing in some characteristic (e.g., age or fi tness
•
level), to be compared at the same time to identify current differences
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(Continued)
I N T E R V I E W
Scott K. Powers,
EdD, PhD, FACSM, Professor of Exercise Physiology, Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology at the University of Florida. Scott is a past-president of the ACSM.Brief Introduction
I earned my BS degree in physical education from Carson Newman College in Tennessee. After completing a master’s degree at the University of Geor- gia, I then earned a doctoral degree in exercise science (with an emphasis in exercise physiology) from the University of Tennessee. I desired additional training in basic science and cell biology, and subsequently completed a PhD in physiology and cell biology from Louisiana State University.
➤ What are your most signifi cant career experiences?
I began my professional career as a faculty member in the Department of Kinesiology at Louisiana State University, and I am currently a professor within the Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology at the University of Florida. Citing my research and teaching accom- plishments, the University of Florida honored me with an endowed professorship in 2004 followed by the title of “distinguished professor” in 2005.
Throughout my career, I have been active in both the American Physiologic Society and the Ameri- can College Sports Medicine having served both organizations via committee memberships and as an elected offi cer.
➤ Why did you choose to become an exercise science professional?
My personal interest in exercise physiology be- gan during my undergraduate studies at Carson Newman College. As a distance runner on our training in the 1970s. Through annual meetings
and publications, those with sports medicine exper- tise were gradually attracted to the ACSM. By the 1980s, ACSM had as professional members some of the leading sport team physicians and athletic trainers in the world. Research and publications began to focus on the prevention and treatment of sports injuries, peak athletic performance, the role of the team physician, and other important aspects of athleticism, such as the female athlete triad. The ACSM also offers a series of team physi- cian courses, which are important in disseminat- ing information to practicing physicians.
➤ How will ACSM contribute as a world leader in exercise science into the twenty-fi rst century?
ACSM has in its membership the leaders in exercise science and sports medicine worldwide.
This highly scientifi c international membership continues to position the ACSM at the forefront of any major development in the fi eld. The ACSM also has a very proactive and highly talented pro- fessional staff at its headquarters in Indianapo- lis who work tirelessly to further ACSM’s goals.
Publications, annual meetings, special symposia, certifi cations, and position stands, among nu- merous other projects, have a constant impact on the fi eld. Because of its stature, the ACSM has had a signifi cant impact on policy decisions and continues to be the most dynamic force to view exercise defi ciency as a serious health prob- lem. The ACSM believes that exercise is in fact good medicine and will continue to convince fed- eral, state, and local offi cials that physical activity is the key to good health and the prevention of disease.
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collegiate track team, I became fascinated with the physiology of human performance and began to read all of the exercise physiology texts avail- able at the time. I quickly realized that knowl- edge in exercise physiology was limited in many areas and hence, a need for additional research existed. Fueled by natural curiosity, I decided to pursue a graduate degree in exercise physiology to learn more about this exciting topic. My expe- rience in graduate school served to motivate me further to expand my knowledge about exercise physiology and to dedicate my career to research and teaching in exercise physiology.
➤ Which individuals or experiences were the most infl uential in your career development?
Two individuals played major roles in my early career development. First, my mother, who was a public school teacher and a high school guid- ance counselor, played a major role in motivat- ing me toward academic endeavors. Second, Dr Edward T. Howley, professor in exercise physiol- ogy at the University of Tennessee, had a major positive infl uence on my professional develop- ment. Specifi cally, Professor Howley was my doctoral mentor at the University of Tennes- see and served as an ideal role model during my graduate studies in exercise physiology.
Indeed, Dr Howley was both a master teacher and accomplished scholar and he passed along his enthusiasm for learning to all of the gradu- ate students that he mentored during his highly successful career.
➤ What are your top two or three professional accomplishments?
From a research perspective, my primary achievements have come in three different areas of inquiry. First, during the 1980s, my laboratory investigated the factors that control breathing and regulate pulmonary gas exchange during ex- ercise. An important fi nding related to this work was that pulmonary gas exchange limits maximal oxygen uptake in many elite endurance athletes.
This novel observation revealed that the lung and not the cardiovascular system limits maximal ox- ygen uptake in this population of elite athletes.
In 1990, my research focus shifted toward two new areas of investigation: (a) exercise-induced
cardioprotection; and (b) disuse muscle atrophy.
By studying how exercise changes the heart, my research group has made signifi cant contri- butions to our understanding of how and why regular bouts of endurance exercise protects the heart during a heart attack. This form of cardiac safeguard is termed exercise-induced cardio- protection and provides direct evidence about the importance of exercise. In this regard, our work demonstrates that as few as 3 to 5 days of aerobic exercise can produce cardioprotection.
However, this exercise-induced protection is lost quickly (i.e., within 18 days) after the cessation of exercise. Moreover, our research has revealed some of the key cellular mechanisms that are re- sponsible for exercise-induced cardioprotection.
Finally, my laboratory has also made some im- portant discoveries regarding the mechanisms re- sponsible for disuse muscle atrophy (i.e., muscle loss owing to inactivity resulting from prolonged bed rest, limb immobilization, etc.). By investi- gating the mechanisms responsible for this type of muscle wasting, our research team hopes to develop countermeasures to prevent this type of muscle atrophy and prevent or retard this cause of muscle atrophy.
➤ What advice would you have for a student exploring a career in exercise science?
Successful individuals in any profession share many of the same traits. A key trait of all success- ful people is that they are passionate about what they do. So, my best advice for students explor- ing career options is to fi nd your passion in life.
In short, what career would make you happy so that you enjoy going to work each morning? Is it possible to enjoy going to work? YES! A job is only work if you do not like it. So, fi nd your passion and you will never work a day in your life! Although locating your passion in life is the fi rst important step in developing your career, it is also very important to receive the best possible education to assist you in achieving your profes- sional goals. Therefore, before choosing a major or professional career track, do your homework and research the best courses and experiences and faculty mentors can then provide you with the cutting edge training that will allow you to begin your career on the right track.
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