The wellbeing of research participants is of the utmost importance and this can often compromise the pursuit of the truth within research. For example, researching coaching practice may uncover failings in coach education pro- grammes, the publication of which would be embarrassing and damaging
for individuals. However, such research would also improve knowledge of pitfalls to avoid in coach education programmes. Researchers often fi nd themselves facing diffi cult ethical dilemmas and need to develop solutions to these problems. Researchers have to compromise their search for the truth in order to proceed with their research in an ethical manner. This approach recognises that undertaking research in an ethical manner is paramount and avoids the potentially damaging consequences of unethical research. There are many sources of ethical problems, some of which can be anticipated before data collection and some which may not be encountered until data are being gathered and analysed. Where ethical problems are anticipated by researchers or members of research ethics committees, these problems can be addressed prior to data collection commencing.
Voluntary informed consent
Those who participate in research studies should do so of their own free will with a full understanding of what they are participating in, especially their own personal involvement in the study. Potential participants should be provided with a complete and clear explanation of the purpose of the study, any source of funding for the study, what participants are required to do, how many occasions they are involved and the duration of each task they are required to do, any risks of any kind that may be involved and any pain or discomfort that may be experienced. The researcher should explain the extent to which participant anonymity and confi dentiality will be preserved.
There are circumstances where researchers would be obliged to divulge information about participants for legal and professional reasons, so researchers should not give unrealistic guarantees of anonymity and confi - dentiality. Where data are being gathered using video or audio recording devices, the participants should be made aware of this. Some research projects may be able to provide an option for data to be gathered without such devices, but in other research projects, such devices may be essential.
The participants’ willingness to have their words and image recorded is something that the researcher must consider when recruiting participants.
The use of the data within the project as well as any possible uses of the data within future research projects, by the researcher or others, should be explained to potential participants. Where the participants have provided their consent for a particular study, it is unethical to then use their data for further studies where they have not provided their consent.
Any benefi ts of participation should also be clearly explained to avoid disappointment if participants form an unrealistic expectation due to vague descriptions. The explanations of the purpose of the research, what partici- pants will do and any risks involved should be made as far as possible in language that the participants can understand. The researcher should answer any queries that potential participants have about the research and their involvement in it.
People must not be pressurised into participating in research studies and have the right to withdraw without prejudice from the study at any point if they wish. An example of unethical behaviour can occur where students undertaking university degree programmes are recruited as participants in research studies by their teachers. Students may feel that they should par- ticipate in such investigations in order to be awarded good marks in course- work and exams. Even where marks awarded are independent of involvement in the study, the students still might feel pressure to participate in the study.
Sometimes, data are collected from students as part of a module that they are undertaking. For example, performance analysis students could be asked to analyse a performance in order to learn about a system, the nature of data gathering in performance analysis or reliability assessment. The author has organised such exercises during practical sessions with his own stu- dents. The results are used in the classroom to discuss disagreements in data entered between students to learn about sources of error in performance analysis. These data have never been published and will not be published as the author has never applied for ethical clearance to use such data in research and the data came from trainee users. There would be an ethical problem if the gathering of data was primarily being done for research purposes and there was very little educational value in the exercise.
Another way in which people may be pressurised into participating in research studies is through the use of ‘gatekeepers’ who may have some infl uence or power over them. The researchers should always seek voluntary informed consent from the individual participants with the gatekeeper’s role only being to identify potential participants. Informed consent means that any potential participant must sign a document that states that they under- stand the purpose of the study, their own involvement and that they are free to withdraw at any time without prejudice. In research involving covert methods and deception, it is not possible to obtain voluntary informed consent, as will be discussed later in this chapter.
There are some studies where participants cannot provide voluntary informed consent, for example under-18-year olds or people who would not have the ability to understand the explanations provided about the research.
In such situations, researchers should obtain informed consent from parents, guardians and teachers. There may also be legal requirements associated with working with under-18-year olds in any capacity. For example, in the UK it is necessary to be cleared to work with under-18-year olds by the Criminal Records Bureau (CRB check). There may be a risk of anxiety and stress caused by research participation for those with learning diffi culties, for example. The condition experienced by such participants is also a private matter for themselves, their families and those who care for them. Therefore, researchers who wish to include such participants within their investiga- tions should seek the advice of relevant professionals and take the necessary care if using such participants.
Privacy, confi dentiality and anonymity
Privacy and confi dentiality are serious matters in research; some countries have legal requirements for the recording and storing of personal informa- tion such as the UK’s 1988 Data Protection Act. There are research journals that will not publish research papers where participants are identifi ed. There are also professional bodies that have codes of conduct forbidding the iden- tifi cation of research participants. This raises issues for many performance analysis investigations where elite participants are identifi ed and discussed within research papers. This occurs where data are already in the public domain through television, newspaper or internet coverage or where specta- tors are permitted at match venues.
Questionnaires can be provided anonymously by using identifi ers that would not indicate who the respondent is. Anonymity is not possible with interview data, making it very important that any interview recordings and transcripts are stored securely and that participants are not identifi ed directly or indirectly by the way a research study is reported. Therefore, research papers, dissertations and other research reports should avoid stating the role or organisational position that might identify a participant. Researchers often work in collaboration with other researchers and professionals from other institutions that may have regulations or agreements with clients about the confi dentiality of information. For example, the player tracking data of the ProZone3® system are only available to the two clubs partici- pating in the match and are not disclosed to third parties without the agree- ment of both clubs to share the information.
Invasive testing and measurement
Research can be argued to be invasive where participants are required to spend time and effort performing tasks that they would not be doing if they were not participants in the given research study. Therefore, the use of inter- views, focus groups and questionnaires can be said to be invasive research methods. This section is concerned with testing and measurement that involve the participants performing activity in laboratory or fi eld settings that is much more disruptive to their routine activity than completing a questionnaire would be. Examples of such methods are:
phlebotomy;
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taking muscle biopsies;
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taking saliva samples or other human tissue;
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anthropometric measurement and fi tness testing;
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biomechanical analysis outside competition situations;
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dietary interventions;
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exercise prescription;
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performing psychological skills training for the purpose of the investi-
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gation;
wearing heart monitors or other devices during training, competition,
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work or free time that would not normally be worn.
Some of these invasive methods involve a risk of physical or psychological harm, while others involve some discomfort. The researcher should do a risk assessment of any activity to be undertaken by the participants and ensure that any risks involved are explained to potential participants. Where strenuous exercise is involved, it may also be necessary to ensure as far as possible that participants obtain medical clearance. Exercise testing and measurement should be done by appropriately qualifi ed personnel and if any substances are being produced to be ingested by the participants, these should also be prepared by qualifi ed personnel. The general process of obtaining ethical clearance for such research is discussed later in this chapter;
however, researchers must use the procedures that operate within their own university or organisation.
Vulnerable populations
Vulnerable populations include under-18-year olds, the elderly, people with learning diffi culties and the physically or mentally disabled. As mentioned earlier, researchers must obtain voluntary informed consent from parents, guardian or teachers when investigating under-18-year olds. Where partici- pants are recruited and voluntary informed consent is provided by the parent or guardian, the researcher should not use this to coerce a member of a vul- nerable population to participate against their will. There may be occasions where a participant states that they do not wish to be involved in a study or it is apparent that they do not wish to be involved. In such situations, the participant should be allowed to withdraw from the study even if parents, guardians, teachers or carers have given their consent.
Deceptive research
There is a range of deception that can occur within research projects. An example of a non-contentious use of deception was a study of relative age effect (Perham and O’Donoghue, 2009) where a series of interviews were used to investigate the lived experience of fi eld hockey players born in differ- ent halves of the junior competition year. The student was concerned that the responses made by participants might be infl uenced by the purpose of the study and, therefore, the precise purpose of the study was concealed from the participants until the fi nal question, when the student asked what month the participant was born. This was done to maximise the chances of uncover- ing the truth about the differences in the experience of sport between those born in the fi rst half of the junior competition year and those born in the
second half. The general aim of the study, to investigate the lived experience of fi eld hockey players, was explained to the participants, although the authors did not completely obtain full voluntary informed consent. One way around this problem would be to explain the full purpose after the study and seek voluntary informed consent to use the interview data at that point.
Covert methods are used to investigate issues where the pursuit of the truth would be seriously compromised if participants were aware they were being investigated. The researcher gains access to a group of interest without the group providing any consent for the research study to take place. The researcher then investigates the group over a natural cycle of time through a combination of observation and conversations. The research is deceptive because the researcher conceals their true role and acts as a member or associ- ate of the group. This requires a combination of good acting skills and naïve participants. The ethical issues are that the participants do not realise they are participating in a research study and have not given their consent to be studied, the participants’ privacy is violated, the researcher is potentially placed in danger and the participants may experience embarrassment or other damaging consequences on publication of the study. As will be mentioned later in this chapter, many university research ethics committees will only approve deceptive research if the knowledge to be discovered by the research is very important and there is no other way of investigating the problem.
Sensitive aspects of behaviour
Sensitive aspects of participant behaviour can be investigated using a variety of methods, including interviews. The ethical issue is that potentially private and possibly illegal behaviour of participants is being investigated. Even where overt methods are being used, the investigation of issues such as drug use or hooliganism requires participant consent, which may be diffi cult to negotiate. Furthermore, if the research is inductive rather than testing fi xed hypotheses, the initial research proposal cannot specify the full detail of the participants’ behaviour or how it will be portrayed in any eventual research report. The conclusions drawn from the study may portray an image of the participants that they do not accept.