However, when one considers the four stages of description, information, confrontation and reconstruction used in critical refl ection (Smyth, 1989), critical theory is closer to the way performance analysts work in practice than the normative and interpretive paradigms.
The performance analyst working with a squad will analyse relevant aspects of squad performance, providing a description of the current situa- tion. This would be the end point of descriptive research, but performance analysis in its coaching context has several more stages of a critical refl ec- tion and performance enhancement process. A thorough analysis of sports performance data identifi es areas of the squad’s performance that can improve. This challenges the status quo of the squad’s situation within the sport, informs areas of ‘illegitimacy’ of the situation and threatens the inter- ests of dominant squads. The confrontation stage is also relevant to per- formance analysis in practice as the squad is not so much asking if they can improve but how they can improve. The reconstruction stage is where deci- sions are made relating to squad preparation to specifi cally improve the performance of the squad. The effectiveness of this action is evaluated during analysis of training and subsequent competition.
The research methodology most underpinned by critical theory is action research, described earlier in this chapter. Critical theory has a transforming intention and seeks to ensure the catalytic validity of research, meaning that the research can be an agent of change in practice. This is exactly why performance analysis is used by coaches and athletes.
community) are with our knowledge of the topic. The review of literature does not only cover the state of the art in terms of theory but also in terms of relevant variables and methods. This places the researcher in a much better position to transform the broad and vague research problem into a more specifi c and detailed research proposal. The rationale for the study identifi es a gap in our knowledge of the chosen area and a need for the study, justifying its importance. Therefore, the rationale explains ‘why’ the study is being done.
In quantitative research, formal hypotheses are used to state the specifi c research question in terms of precise variables and conditions. The hypoth- eses typically include a null hypothesis (that there will be no difference between samples or no relation between variables) as well as an alternative hypothesis (that there will be one or more differences between samples or relationships between variables). The hypotheses state exactly ‘what’ the research question is. The study to answer the research question is then designed. Methods are devised, describing ‘how’ data will be gathered and analysed to answer the research question. The fi xed design is very common in quantitative research and permits data collection to be undertaken by trained personnel other than the researcher in some investigations. Once all of the data are gathered, they are analysed using statistical techniques that produce the results of the study. These results constitute ‘what’ has been found by the research study and whether it is the null or the alternative hypothesis that cannot be rejected. The discussion draws on literature from directly and indirectly related areas of scientifi c research to offer explana- tions for the fi ndings. Theoretical perspectives and other research evidence are used to explain ‘why’ the study has produced the fi ndings that have been observed. The conclusions do not merely summarise the results but also state ‘where’ our knowledge of the area is now that the study has been completed, providing directions for future research opportunities.
Figure 2.4 is very deliberate in using a ‘V’ shape to represent the quantita- tive research process rather than a straight line sequence of seven stages.
The results are related to the stated hypotheses and the discussion is related to the rationale for undertaking the study as well as the literature review.
Therefore, if the researcher does not thoroughly cover the literature, the entire study may be addressing a ‘gap’ in research that has already been covered by previously published research. This might not be detected by the researcher until the discussion is being done. This will mean that a great deal of project activity including research design, data gathering, data anal- ysis and presentation of results will be done before the mistake is detected.
Similarly, when the hypotheses are formed, they must be precise and in terms of variables that are measurable and testable. The hypotheses should not only be precise, but should also dictate a results format that will com- prehensively answer the research question while also allowing for a suffi - ciently concise presentation of results. The researcher would not wish to gather and analyse data, possibly taking hundreds of hours, only to fi nd that
the results are trivial or that they are overly verbose. Therefore, planning in quantitative research is essential and is promoted by the use of a fi xed research design. Although performance analysis does not involve organising testing, making arrangements with participants for testing and booking equipment to the same extent that some experimental studies do, good plan- ning is still necessary for the delivery of a good dissertation.
At the earliest stages of conceiving a research idea, researchers should be able to visualise whether there are feasibility and logistical problems with the research. However, in the experience of this author, students still propose ideas that are not feasible or practical when this should have been immedi- ately obvious to them. As soon as a student thinks of a research idea, they should ask the following questions:
Is there public domain video footage of the performances that I need to
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analyse and am I able to obtain copies of this footage?
Will public domain footage show the events that need to be studied?
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If public domain footage is unlikely to be obtained, is it possible to fi lm
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matches myself? Will I get permission to fi lm? Will I get access to a good fi lming position at the competition venue? Will I be able to book the video cameras I need to record data? Will I be able to travel to the matches? How much will the admission fee be at these matches?
If I wish to fi lm training sessions or coach behaviour, will enough players
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or coaches at the given level of the sport be willing to participate in the study? Does the training venue have a good fi lming position? Am I available to travel to the training venue and fi lm sessions on the days the squad trains?
If the study involves detailed analysis of technique, will I be allowed to
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use equipment in the biomechanics laboratory? Is such equipment only available to students taking level 3 or level 4 modules in biomechanics?
Will I really be able to get relevant athletes to participate in the study?
If fi lming cannot be done and there is no public domain video footage,
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can I use manual methods to record the necessary aspects of perform- ance live?
Where
Methods Why
What
How
Literature
Review Conclusions &
Recommendations Rationale Discussion
Hypotheses Results
Figure 2.4 The ‘V’ shaped model of the quantitative research process
If there are particular types of match that I am intending to study (for
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example fi ve-set tennis matches at Grand Slam tournaments or soccer matches where both teams are level, ahead and behind for at least 15 minutes during the match), how many matches are there that satisfy these criteria? How many of these matches are televised? Will this be suffi cient to answer the research question?
Students should also give serious thought to what their proposed project will actually be like and whether the tasks they say will happen will indeed happen. If a dissertation idea is not feasible, effort in that research direction should cease as soon as possible and a more feasible project should be selected.
Cohen et al. (2007: 80–81) described orientating decisions that are made at the early stages of a project. These include determining the purpose, aims and scope of the research, identifying constraints and operationalising the aims of the research. Once a feasible research area is agreed, the project can be planned by identifying tasks to be done, estimating the time required to do them and associating tasks with deliverables to be produced. When devising methods in quantitative research, the opportunity should be taken to produce a detailed plan of the research project, which will act as a tool for project management and control. The various data gathering tasks, data analysis, reporting tasks, write up tasks, obtaining ethical approval and any other task that requires time and effort should be identifi ed and listed. An initial timetable should be drawn up showing the weeks from when project activity commences to the deadline for submission of the dissertation. This plan should account for every project activity that requires time and effort including library work, data gath- ering, data analysis, writing activity and meetings.