TOPIC SHEET
7
Hazardous waste 93
Hazardous waste arises from multiple sources (ranging from large- and small-scale industries to hospitals, offices and households); Figure 2 shows the distribution of total
0 2,000 4,000Km
Hazardous Waste Generation
Data Source: UNSD Last Update: March 2011 Map Source: UNGIWG Map available at: http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/qindicators
Units: 1000 tonnes
No data available
*Note that data correspond to the latest year available.
0 - 1,000 1,001 - 5,000 5,001 - 10,000 10,001 - 30,000 30,001 - 141,020
Source: UNSD (2011). Environmental indicators, waste: Hazardous Waste Generation (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/hazardous.htm).
hazardous waste generation by sector in the U.S. in 2011 (total amount of 34 million [short] tons), as defined in and reported under the U.S. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act.
Iron and steel mills and ferroalloy manufacturing Pesticide, fertilizer, and other agricultural chemical manufacturing Waste treatment
and disposal
Petroleum and coal products manufacturing
Basic chemical manufacturing 56%
19%
6%
5%
4%
Nonferrous metal (except aluminum) production and processing 3%
Others
3% Other sectors generating more than 100,000 tons per year 4%
Source: USEPA. National Analysis – The National Biennial RCRA Hazardous Waste Report (Based on 2011 Data) (http://www.epa.gov/epawaste/
inforesources/data/br11/national11.pdf).
Figure 2 Sectors in the U.S. generating the largest quantities of hazardous waste Figure 1 Global hazardous waste generation in 2009
As shown in Figure 2, large volumes of hazardous waste come from resource extraction and processing, heavy industry and product manufacturing. Over recent decades, many of these industries have been moving to emerging economies, where such industrialization and economic growth means that the generation of hazardous waste is increasing. In the BRICS countries (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) and other rapidly industrializing emerging economies, hazardous waste management systems have been developed and are gradually being implemented, including provision of facilities, as the quantity of industrial hazardous waste in some places already provides the necessary economy of scale. Notwithstanding the progress made, there is still much to be done to ensure that fully compliant ESM facilities are available in all regions within these countries.
Despite such shifts in industry, and despite recessions in much of the developed world, it appears that hazardous waste generation is still increasing in developed countries. For example in the EU, there was an overall 3.3% increase in hazardous waste generated between 2010 (97.5 million tonnes) and 2012 (100.7 million tonnes).7 That said, changes in definitions may also be a factor here, as the hazard categories are changing.8 All countries generate hazardous waste
All countries generate hazardous waste, be it from small-scale industrial processes such as leather tanning, electroplating of metals or photofinishing;
from mining and quarrying or dredging activities; from healthcare facilities; or from offices and households. The management of such waste represents a challenge to governments as often this waste is co-disposed with municipal waste or non-hazardous industrial waste. In addition waste not officially categorized as hazardous waste often contains low concentrations of hazardous substances, due in part to the increase in the number of chemicals produced and their use in a broader range of products.
Many countries are starting to pay particular attention to the generation of small quantities of hazardous waste from households, offices and small businesses. These are often termed generically ‘household hazardous waste’. Examples include paint, garden pesticides, pharmaceuticals, certain detergents, personal care products, fluorescent tubes, waste oil, heavy metal- containing batteries, print cartridges and waste electronic and electrical equipment. Household hazardous waste should in principle be segregated at source, collected
7 Eurostat (2014). Energy, transport and environment indicators. http://
ec.europa.eu/eurostat/documents/3930297/6613266/KS-DK-14-001-EN-N.
pdf/4ec0677e-8fec-4dac-a058-5f2ebd0085e4 and Eurostat (2014). Waste Statistics. http://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php/Waste_
statistics
8 As an example, the UK has introduced new guidelines for the classifications of hazardous wastes, to implement new EU requirements: http://resource.co/
article/new-waste-assessment-guidance-released-10130
separately and managed within the hazardous waste system. However many developed countries are still in the process of implementing such controls, and the lack of ESM facilities for hazardous waste is a major barrier in low- and middle-income countries.
Another example is healthcare or medical waste, of which around 80% is generally similar to household waste and 20% is hazardous waste such as sharps, materials contaminated with bodily fluids, protective clothing, body parts, chemicals and pharmaceuticals, medical devices and radioactive materials. As per WHO estimates, the average hazardous healthcare waste generated per hospital bed is around 0.2 kg in most low-income countries and 0.5 kg in high-income countries.9 However, the failure to segregate hazardous from non-hazardous waste in low-income countries increases the quantity of healthcare waste that requires management as infectious or otherwise hazardous waste.
In most developing countries, healthcare waste management is a major issue. There is a lack of awareness of the risks to the patients, healthcare workers and the general public; segregation is poor; the infrastructure for safe collection, handling and treatment or disposal is lacking; legislation often does not exist;
and where legislation is in place, enforcement is often poor. Awareness raising, legislation, enforcement and the establishment of common healthcare waste treatment facilities on a city-wide or regional basis have been the strategies to address this challenge. Guidelines and a code of practice have been published by the World Health Organization.10
© Ainhoa Carpintero
Medical waste at a landfill, Philippines
9 http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs253/en/
10 WHO (2014), listed in Annex A, Chapter 3, Other waste streams, under Topic Sheets, Hazardous waste.
Hazardous waste 95
© Ainhoa Carpintero
Container for hazardous waste, Thailand
Support to developing countries in managing their hazardous waste
All hazardous waste should be separated at source and managed in an environmentally sound manner. Most developing countries still lack proper treatment and disposal facilities, while at the same time they face the challenge of increasing amounts of hazardous waste, either due to increased imports of products which become hazardous waste at the end of their useful life (e.g. TVs, electronic equipment) or through industrialization (as both production and the associated wastes and pollution are
‘out-sourced’ by the developed countries). As a result, it could be argued that both multinational companies and developed countries have some responsibility to help developing countries to manage their hazardous waste. Support is needed to raise awareness in government, industry and the general public; to develop appropriate legislation and the institutional structures for implementation and enforcement;11 to build institutional and human capacity;12 and to establish the required infrastructure and facilities for environmentally sound management.
11 Several guidelines are published by the Secretariat of the Basel Convention, including model legislation and codes of practice for the management of particular types of waste. For links to these, see Annex A, under Chapter 3, Other Waste Streams, under Topic Sheets, Hazardous waste.
12 A Training Resource Pack (TRP) for hazardous waste management in emerging economies was first published by ISWA, UNEP and the Basel Convention in 2002. The TRP manual and its associated support material is currently being updated. The original 2002 version, and the forthcoming update, entitled
“TRP+”, can be found at http://www.trp-training.info/
A first priority is to stop the uncontrolled mixing of hazardous and non-hazardous waste and to stop the disposal of such waste in an unsafe and uncontrolled manner. This includes the upgrading of existing unsafe recycling practices. For example, the recycling of lead- acid batteries in many developing countries involves draining the sulphuric acid into the gutter and then burning off the rubber casing to obtain molten lead.
Similarly, the recycling of e-waste13 often involves, among other practices, the burning of PVC cladding to recover copper cables. Such practices result in environmental pollution while at the same time poisoning the recycling operators and their neighbours.
13 See Topic Sheet 8 on E-waste, found after this Topic Sheet.
TOPIC SHEET
8
Waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), popularly known as ‘e-waste’, comes from a broad range of electronic products such as computers, televisions, or video games, as well as all kinds of electrical equipment, often divided into large equipment (washing machines, air-conditioners, freezers etc.) and small equipment (hairdryers, electric toothbrushes, vacuum cleaners etc.).
This is the fastest-growing waste stream all around the world due to increased consumer demand, perceived obsolesce, and rapid changes in technology and inventions of new electronic devices. The situation is compounded by the short lifespans of certain products and products not being designed with recycling in mind.
Figure 1 Amounts of e-waste generated in 2014, by type
15%
17%
7% 2%
31%
28%
Small equipment eg. electric shavers, microwaves, toasters or video cameras
Large equipment eg. electric stoves, washing machines Temperature
exchange equipment eg. fridges, freezers, air-conditioners
Lamps
Screens Small IT such as personal computers, mobile phones or printers
Source: Baldé, C. P., F. Wang, R. Kuehr, J. Huisman (2015). The global e-waste monitor – 2014. United Nations University, IAS – SCYCLE, Bonn, Germany.1
1 Available at http://i.unu.edu/media/unu.edu/news/52624/UNU-1stGlobal-E- Waste-Monitor-2014-small.pdf
A 2015 report by the United Nations University (UNU) estimated that 41.8 million tonnes (Mt) of e-waste was generated in 2014, almost 25% more than the 2010 figure of 33.8 Mt.2 The amounts of e-waste generated by type are shown in Figure 1.
Most of this waste was generated in Asia (16 Mt), followed by Europe (11.6 MT), North America (7.9 Mt), Latin America and Caribbean (3.8 Mt), Africa (1.9 Mt) and Oceania (0.6 Mt). However, in e-waste generation per capita, Europe has the highest figure (15.6 kg/person) and Africa the lowest (1.7 kg/person).
Estimated annual generation in the coming years are as high as 50 Mt in 2018.3
Composition of e-waste
The composition of WEEE/e-waste is very diverse, as electrical and electronic equipment encompasses such a broad range of categories. In general it is characterized by containing a combination of metals, plastics, chemicals, glass and other substances.4 Among the substances of particular interest are a very wide range of metals including rare earth metals like lanthanum, cerium, praseodymium, neodymium, gadolinium and dysprosium; precious metals such as gold, silver and palladium; or other metals such as copper, aluminium or iron, which have a high intrinsic value. However, even though ‘critical materials’ are scarce, they have recycling rates lower than 1%, which represents a threat to resource security over the long term.5 Others substances which are hazardous or potentially hazardous, such as lead-containing glass, plastics treated with brominated flame retardants or ozone-depleting substances such as CFCs, are of concern due to the potential health and environmental risks they might pose.
2 Baldé, C.P., F. Wang et al. (2015), listed in Annex A, Chapter 3, Other waste streams, under Topic Sheets, E-waste.
3 Baldé, C.P., F. Wang et al. (2015), listed in Annex A, Chapter 3, Other waste streams, under Topic Sheets, E-waste.
4 See Figure 3.13.
5 See Section 3.4.2 and Figure 3.14
E-WASTE
E-waste 97
E-waste legislation and management
The collection and management of e-waste heavily depends on the legislation in each country. As e-waste could include end-of-life products, it is an obvious candidate for some form of extended producer responsibility (EPR) or product stewardship, with such schemes being either voluntary or mandatory.6,7 Although various forms of take-back systems are being implemented in both developed and developing countries, the amount of e-waste treated under such systems is reported to be lower than 50% of the total amount generated (40% in Europe, 24 to 30% in China and Japan, 12% in the U.S. and 1% in Australia).8 The e-waste not collected under these take-back systems might end up discarded into the general waste stream, or it might be collected by individual dealers or companies who trade the e-waste either for reuse or for recycling its metal, plastic and other substances.
Developing nations often lack the legislation on this type of waste, the infrastructure needed for handling it properly or treatment standards. Informal collection followed by unsafe recovery and recycling methods are commonplace, involving manual disassembly of the equipment, unsafe treatment techniques such as acid leaching to recover precious metals or burning activities to
6 An example of the approach being taken to EPR for e-waste in China is given in Topic Sheet 13, found after Section 4.5. (Topic Sheet 13 also addresses the dilemma of how to manage ‘informal’ sector recycling.)
7 See Section 4.5.2.
8 Baldé, C.P., F. Wang et al. (2015), listed in Annex A, Chapter 3, Other waste streams, under Topic Sheets, E-waste.
extract valuable metals, for example burning PVC-coated cables to recover copper, and the uncontrolled dumping of the residual waste.9 These practices expose workers to dangerous working conditions that pose great risks to their health, for example through the inhalation of black soot, carcinogenic polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and dioxins during burning activities, and also cause serious environmental pollution. To avoid such practices, initiatives have been launched by different stakeholder groups (including the producers) in many developing countries, aiming at environmentally sound e-waste management and sustainable recycling businesses providing safe and secure livelihoods.10
Export/transboundary movement of e-waste Given the rapid turnover of mobile phones and computer equipment in developed countries, and the high demand for access to such equipment at a more affordable cost in middle- and low-income countries, there is a legitimate international trade in reusable and repairable equipment, a portion of which is facilitated by development charities.
The question is, until what point are these materials
‘products’ which can be traded freely, and from what point do they become ‘wastes’, subject to control under the Basel Convention.
It is legal under the Basel Convention to export (hazardous) e-waste for recycling and disposal on the
9 ISWA (2011). ISWA Position Paper on Waste Trafficking. http://www.iswa.org/
index.php?eID=tx_bee4mememberships_download&fileUid=118 10 See Case Study 1 on e-waste, found after this Topic Sheet.
© WorldLoop / Hendrickx
15 More information can be found at http://www.basel.int/Implementation/
TechnicalAssistance/Partnerships.
16 Basel Convention (2012).
17 More information can be found at http://www.basel.int/Implementation/
TechnicalAssistance/Partnerships/PACE/Overview/tabid/3243/Default.aspx
basis of prior informed consent,provided that the waste will be managed in an environmentally sound manner.
However, a total ban has been proposed on the export of hazardous waste to developing countries11 because of concern that many developing countries ‘lack the financial, technical, legal, and institutional capacity for monitoring transboundary movements, managing [hazardous] wastes in an environmentally sound way and preventing illegal imports.’12 In fact the EU and many other developed countries already ban exports of hazardous waste to developing countries.
All this notwithstanding, it is clear that some portion of the export trade in e-waste in particular has in the past
‘crossed the line’, and could be classified as ‘waste trafficking’ or ‘waste crime’, rather than legitimate trade.
For example, the Agbogbloshie dump in Accra, Ghana, mentioned in Topic Sheet 2 as one of the 50 biggest dumpsites in the world, and perhaps the world’s largest e-waste dump, receives around 192,000 tonnes of e-waste annually, much of it imported, and pollutes soil, air and water and causes serious health impairments in the lives of 10,000 informal sector workers gaining their livelihood from sorting and recycling.
The modus operandi for international waste trafficking includes, among other means, deliberate misclassification of waste types, false declarations of waste products or unchecked items as re-usable products and other kinds of fraudulent shipment documents.13 Controlling such trade entirely at the point of export is impracticable, and as discussed in Section 4.3.7, it is also impossible for the regulator to inspect each container.
Another approach is to work within the product supply chains to prevent inappropriate and illegal trade at source, and to work with the recyclers in developing countries to develop environmentally sound management and sustainable business practices. Several multi- stakeholder partnership initiatives have been facilitated by the Basel Convention or the UN, two of which are highlighted in the box below.14 The Case Study on e-waste management in Kenya which follows this Topic Sheet showcases two initiatives to turn unsafe recycling practices into environmentally sound management businesses.
11 An amendment banning all exports of hazardous wastes from Basel Convention
“Annex VII” countries (primarily OECD and EU member countries) to non- Annex VII countries, including exports intended for reuse, recycling or recovery operations, was adopted in 1995. This Amendment will enter into force upon ratification by three-fourths of the Parties that were Parties to the Convention when the Amendment was adopted in 1995 (i.e. 66 of the 87 Parties to the Convention in 1995).
12 Basel Convention (2002). “Minimizing hazardous wastes: A simplified guide to the Basel Convention,” p.16. www.basel.int/pub/simp-guide.pdf
13 See Section 5.3.4.
14 Another collaborative global initiative, led by UNU-IAS since 2007, is the
‘Solving the E-waste Problem’ (StEP) Initiative, which leads global thinking, knowledge, awareness and innovation in the management and development of environmentally, economically and ethically-sound e-waste resource recovery, re-use and prevention.
E-waste management and support for decision making through partnerships under the Basel Convention (MPPI) and PACE14
The Basel Convention has been addressing e-waste issues since 2002, when the Convention’s Mobile Phone Partnership Initiative (MPPI) was adopted.
The overall objective of the MPPI was to promote the objectives of the Basel Convention in the areas of environmentally sound management of end-of-life mobile phones, prevention of illegal traffic to developing countries and building capacity around the globe to better manage e-waste. Under the MPPI, five technical guidelines were developed, including awareness raising and design considerations; collection of used and end-of-life mobile phones; transboundary movement of collected mobile phones; refurbishment of used mobile phones; and material recovery/recycling of end-of-life mobile phones. The guidelines were tested in a facility-type environment and then revised. The final MPPI guidance document15 was adopted in its entirety in 2011.
In 2006, the Nairobi Declaration on the Environmentally Sound Management of Electrical and Electronic Waste was adopted under the Convention, calling for more structured and enhanced efforts towards achieving global solutions to manage e-waste problems and encouraging Parties to develop further partnerships targeting e-waste.
More recently, the Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment (PACE) was developed as a multi-stakeholder public-private partnership that provides a forum for representatives of manufacturers, recyclers, international organizations, associations, academia, environmental groups and governments to tackle environmentally sound refurbishment, repair, material recovery, recycling and disposal of used and end-of-life computing equipment.
PACE has produced various kinds of materials, including guidelines on environmentally sound testing, refurbishment and recycling of used computing
equipment; guidelines on environ- mentally sound material recovery and recycling of end-of-life computing equipment; and a report on strategies, actions and incentives to promote environmentally sound management of used and end-of- life computing equipment.16