A. RELATED THEORIES 1. Speech Acts
4. Illocutionary Acts
other and it is requires something different of the listener. The listener is required to pay attention to the speaker's beliefs in representatives. The recipient of a directive is required to decide on a course of action and carry it out. In contrast, commissives, expressions, and declarations require the listener to note new information, such as the speaker's intended course of action, feelings about a fact, or the change in the object's formal status.
In conclusion, speech act is part of social actions. Therefore, speech acts cannot be performed without considering politeness into the utterance that speaker used to deliver his intention. In order to keep good relationships politeness must be applied in communication since politeness links the language use and the social context63. However, the focus of this study will be on the discussion about the directive speech act that all of the characters performed in Alice Oseman's novel I Was Born For This.
Illocutionary acts as defined above, integrates the outcomes of uttering and carrying out something. According to John R. Searle, An illocutionary act is a type of speech act in which the speaker tells their interlocutor if they demand her to carry out something65. Furthermore, Searle identified five primary types of illocutionary acts in using language they are assertive, directive, commisisve, expressive, and declarative66. The following are the explanation about those five types of illocutionary acts.
a. Assertives
Assertive speech acts are statements of fact, It all comes down to the dimension of assessment “true and false” that inspires the viewer to form or attend a belief and commitments67. Searle asserts that the goal of assertive class is to bind the speaker to the proposition's truth68. That is, the speaker wants the hearer to believe what he or she says is true. The assertion that the propositional content is expressed as representing an independently existing state of affairs in the world indicates that utterances with the assertive point have the world-to-world direction of fit69. Here, the speaker is talking about the outside world and expressing his or her beliefs. The following English verbs function as explicit assertive: swear, boast, criticize, complain, conclude, deduce, suggest, report, predict, inform, accuse, testify, confess, and state are all examples of these words70. For example, in the following utterance, “I feel grateful”, It is reasonable to infer that the speaker intends to convey some form of gratitude to the listeners.
65Gisa Maya Saputri, “Illocutionary Acts In Relation to Politeness Strategies As Shown by The Seventh Semester English Education Students In Their Written Messages” (Yogyakarta, Sanata Dharma University, 2016), 13.
66John R. Searle and Daniel Vanderveken, Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, First Edition (Cambridge: The Syndics of The Cambridge University Press, 1985), 51.
67John R. Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, First Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979), 12.
68Levinson, Pragmatics, 1983, 240.
69Searle and Vanderveken, Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, 53.
70Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, 13.
b. Directive
When the speaker anticipates the response of hearer, this is referred to as a directive illocutionary act71. Acts that are directive or illocutionary have a world fits the word direction of fit, implying that the listener is in charge of achieving success72, and also the sincerity condition of directive illocutionary acts is want (or wish or desire)73. This class includes dare, defy, challenge, advise, urges, supplicate, implore, entreat, invite, permit, pray, tell (to), require, ask, beg, plead, pray, suggesting, command, recommend, demand, order, request, forbid74. Since the speaker is trying to get hearer to answer, questions are a subclass of directives because hearer is asked to perform a speech act. Individually, directive speech acts only achieve success of fit if the addressee ensures that their contents are reflected in reality. The direction of fit is world-to-word in directive speech acts. For instance, when the speaker requests hearer to add some salt by stating“Please pass the salt.” By uttering that phrase, the speaker conveys the request to the listeners and forces them to adding the salt75.
c. Commissives
A type of illocutionary act known as a "commissive" is one in which the speaker urges the listener to take some action for the benefit of someone other than themselves76, Promising, swearing, and offering all demonstrate this77. The sincerity condition of commissive is intention where S does some future action A78, and fits the world exactly, for individual commissive speech acts can only be successful if the speaker makes sure that the world changes in line with his
71Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts.
72Searle and Vanderveken, Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, 53.
73Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, 14.
74Searle, 14.
75Searle, Speech Acts Essay In The Philosophy of Language, 53.
76Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, 14.
77David Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics, Sixth ediiton (9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK: Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2008), 88.
78Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, 14.
(speaker) intention79. Promising, pledging, refusing, threatening, pledging, guaranteeing, and offering are all part of the class80. An example would be, "I shall do my best." The utterance demonstrates that the speaker makes a promise, he/she commit to do the future action with all his heart and ability.81
d. Expressive
Acts of expressive illocution performed by the speaker to convey his or her mental state to the audience 82. The fit of expressive speech acts is ineffective or empty83 it is used to convey speaker attitudes. Expressive speech acts have a null or an empty direction of fit, for an individual expressive speech acts serve to express attitudes of the speakers. Even though it is assumed that the attitudes exist, they are only a reflection of the speaker's perception and not the actual reality. For instance, I congratulate you on winning the race84. It is presumed to be the birthday of the addressee. However, the speaker's mental state is more important than the actual situation when the congratulations are given. Another example is “I apologize that I stepped on your toe”and “I am sorry to have to say …” those statements demonstrate apologizing.85
e. Declarative
Declarative speech acts, according to Searle, are statements that change an object's status or condition because of the statement itself. An illocution that successfully achieves correspondence between the prepositional content and reality is known as a declarative illocutionary act86. Declarative utterances, which typically rely on
79Searle and Vanderveken, Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, 53.
80Levinson, Pragmatics, 1983, 240.
81Austin, How To Do Things With Words, 77.
82Stephen C. Levinson, Pragmatics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 240.
83Searle and Vanderveken, Foundations of Illocutionary Logic, 54.
84Searle, Expression And Meaning: Studies in the Theory of Speech Acts, 15.
85Austin, How To Do Things With Words, 80–81.
86Geoffrey N Leech, Principles of Pragmatics, First Edition (London, United Kingdom: Longman Group Limited, 1983), 106, https://www.routledge.com/Principles-of-
Pragmatics/Leech/p/book/9780582551107.
intricate extra-linguistic institutions, cause immediate shifts in the institutional situation87. Declaratives fit in both directions by stating that the world matches the propositional content, the speaker simply aligns the world with the propositional content88. For instance, if I appoint you as chairman, it is called a successfully world fit appointment when the appointed person takes office by declaration89. From all categories of illocutionary acts above, the researcher would like to focuses on the directive illocutionary acts, in accordance to its function to helps the addressee do something according to his wants effectively.