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nterpretive frameworkswithin phenomenology are used to search out the relationships and meanings that knowledge and context have for each other (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Increasingly, published nursing research is grounded in the philosophic theory of hermeneutics, and several authors have discussed the philosophic underpinnings of this particular research ap- proach, offering clarity and direction for others (Crist & Tanner, 2003;Geanellos, 2000; Todres & Wheeler, 2001; Van der Zalm & Bergum, 2000). A phenomenological-hermeneutic approach is essentially a philosophy of the nature of understanding a particular phenomenon and the scientific inter- pretation of phenomena appearing in text or written word. Hermeneutics as an interpretive approach is based on the work of Ricoeur (1976), Heidegger (1962), and Gadamer (1976). The methodology allows for increasingly sensitive awareness of humans and their ways of being-in-the-world (Dreyfus, 1991). Allen and Jenson (1990) emphasized that
The value of knowledge in nursing is, in part, determined by its relevance to and significance for an understanding of the human experience. In order to obtain that understanding, nursing requires modes of inquiry that offer the freedom to explore the richness of this experience. Hermeneutics offers such a mode of inquiry. With this interpretive strategy, a means is provided for arriving at a deeper understanding of human existence through attention to the nature of language and meaning. (p. 241)
Hermeneutic phenomenology is a “special kind of phenomenological interpretation, designed to unveil otherwise concealed meanings in the phe- nomena” (Spiegelberg, 1975, p. 57). Gadamer (1976) elaborated by noting that hermeneutics bridges the gap between what is familiar in our worlds and what is unfamiliar: “Its field of application is comprised of all those situations in which we encounter meanings that are not immediately understandable but require interpretive effort” (p. xii). As in all research, congruence between the philosophic foundations of the study and the methodological processes of the research are critical. The basic elements of hermeneutic philosophy and interpretive inquiry are addressed in the following narrative within the context of the work of Ricoeur (1976), Heidegger (1927/1962), and Gadamer (1976).
Paul Ricoeur’s interpretive approach is one way in which nurse researchers can apply hermeneutic philosophy to a qualitative investigation.
Ricoeur (1976) describes the interpretive process as a series of analytic steps
and acknowledged the “interrelationship between epistemology (interpre- tation) and ontology (interpreter)” (Geanellos, 2000, p. 112). Crist and Tanner (2003) also describe the interpretive process of hermeneutic phe- nomenology. They note that although it is not required, having a team of researchers that can debate, brainstorm, and discuss interpretations adds depth and insight to the content area of the inquiry (Crist & Tanner, 2003).
A major difference between hermeneutic phenomenology and other inter- pretations of phenomenological research methods is the fact that the method does not require researchers to bracket their own preconceptions or theories during the process (Lowes & Prowse, 2001). Analysis is essentially the hermeneutic circle, which proceeds from a naïve understanding to an explicit understanding that emerges from explanation of data interpretation.
As described by Allen and Jenson (1990),
The hermeneutical circle of interpretation moves forward and back- ward, starting at the present. It is never closed or final. Through rigorous interaction and understanding, the phenomenon is uncov- ered. The interpretive process that underlies meaning arises out of interactions, working outward and back from self to event and event to self. (p. 245)
There are three main steps to the process of hermeneutic phenomenology:
1. First, during the naïve reading, the researcher reads the text as a whole to become familiar with the text and begins to formulate thoughts about its meaning for further analysis. Lindholm, Uden, and Rastam (1999) in a study on nursing management note that during this par- ticular component of data analysis, they “read all the interviews indi- vidually to gain a sense of the whole text. Their impressions of the text were then documented and discussed. The naïve reading directed attention to the phenomenon of power” (p. 103).
2. Structural analysisfollows as the second step and involves identifying patterns of meaningful connection. This step is often referred to as an interpretive reading. To illustrate, Lindholm et al. (1999) noted that the researchers met to compare and discuss the texts. They describe this step in the following manner: “The text was divided into meaning units, which were transformed with the contents intact. Arising from every transformed meaning unit a number of labels were created, to discover common themes. During the analysis, there was continuous movement between the whole and the parts of the text” (p. 103).
3. Third, interpretation of the wholefollows and involves reflecting on the initial reading along with the interpretive reading to ensure a compre- hensive understanding of the findings. Several readings are usually required. Lindholm et al. (1999) performed a separate interpretation of their data during this step and described themes and subthemes within the data.
Ricoeur (1981) has addressed the difference between text and discourse, referring to these differences as distancing. The four principles of distancing are (1) the transcription itself and the meaning of the written word; (2) the relationship between what has been written and the intent of the person who wrote the text; (3) the meaning of the text beyond its original intent as well as the author’s original intent; and (4) the new interpreted meaning of the writ- ten word and the audience. The process of hermeneutic interpretive phenom- enology is not linear. “Within the circular process, narratives are examined simultaneously with the emerging interpretation, never losing sight of each informant’s particular story and context” (Crist & Tanner, 2003, p. 203).
Christ and Tanner describe five phases of hermeneutic phenomenology. Their interpretation provides detailed steps for those new researchers engaging in hermeneutic interpretive research. Crist and Tanner emphasize that the phases of inquiry in interpretive research frequently overlap due to the nature of the circular process of examining narratives. The phases include the following:
1. Early Focus and Lines of Inquiry: This phase involves critical evaluation of the investigators’ interview and observation techniques and identi- fication of missing or unclear data. New research questions emerge and direct future sampling (Crist & Tanner, 2003, p. 203).
2. Central Concerns, Exemplars, and Paradigm Cases: During this second phase, the researchers identify themes or meanings. Development of the interpretations occurs through writing and rewriting central of concerns. Transcript review of summaries begins (Crist & Tanner, 2003, p. 204).
3. Shared Meanings: Connections between meanings found within and across stories are made (Crist & Tanner, 2003, p. 204).
4. Final Interpretations: Development of in-depth interpretations, central concern summaries, and interpretive summaries is undertaken (Crist
& Tanner, 2003, p. 204).
5. Dissemination of the Interpretation: Refinement of manuscripts and development of audit trail are accomplished (Crist and Tanner, 2003, p. 204).
Allen and Jenson (1990) illustrated the application of hermeneutic in- quiry in their exploration of what it means to have eye problems and to be visually impaired. Their example emphasizes the applicability of hermeneu- tics in the description and explanation of human phenomena. According to Allen and Jenson (1990),
The task . . . of modern hermeneutics is to describe and explain human phenomena (such as health and illness). The purpose of hermeneutical description and explanation is to achieve under- standing through interpretation of the phenomena under study. It is the written description of the phenomena (text) that is the object of interpretation. (p. 242)
Interpretive phenomenology is a valuable method for the study of phenomena relevant to nursing education, research, and practice. Several investigations have used interpretive phenomenology in areas such as edu- cational innovation (Diekelmann, 2001); caring for dying patients with air hunger (Tarzian, 2000); and examining the experience of isolation in blood and marrow transplantation (Cohen, Ley, & Tarzian, 2001). Applying any interpretation of phenomenological research methodology to a particular investigation will require a careful examination of the researcher’s role, gen- eration and treatment of data, and ethical issues connected with a phenom- enological investigation. A discussion of these topics as they relate to the selection of phenomenology as a research method follows.