The issue of trustworthiness in qualitative research has been a concern for researchers engaging in these methods and is discussed at length in the lit- erature (Beck, 1993; Krefting, 1991; Yonge & Stewin, 1988). The issue of rigor in qualitative research is important to the practice of good science.
The trustworthiness of the questions put to study participants depends on the extent to which they tap the participants’ experiences apart from the participants’ theoretical knowledge of the topic (Colaizzi, 1978). Consistent use of the method and of bracketing prior knowledge helps to ensure pure description of data. To ensure trustworthiness of data analysis, researchers return to each participant and ask if the exhaustive description reflects the participant’s experiences. When the findings are recognized to be true by the participants, the trustworthiness of the data is further established. If ele- ments are noted to be unclear or misinterpreted, the researchers must return to the analysis and revise the description.
Requesting negative descriptions of the phenomenon under investiga- tion is helpful in establishing authenticity and trustworthiness of the data.
For example, in the study investigating the meaning of quality of life in in- dividuals with type 1 diabetes mellitus, the researcher may ask, “Can you describe a situation in which you would feel that you did not have quality of life?” This question gives an opportunity to compare and contrast data.
Finally, the audit trail is critical to establishing authenticity and trustwor- thiness of the data. This process allows the reader to clearly follow the line of thinking that the researcher used during data analysis. Clear connections between how the research moved from raw data to interpreted meanings are made through detailed examples. Rigor in qualitative research is a critical component to the process. Data analysis occurs through complex mental processes, critical thinking, and analysis. Researchers must prepare their final descriptions in such a way that the line of thinking and interpretation that occurred is clear to the reader and true to the data.
SUMMARY
P
henomenology is an integral field of inquiry to nursing, as well as phi- losophy, sociology, and psychology. As a research method, phenome- nology is a rigorous scientific process whose purpose is to bring to language human experiences. The phenomenological movement has been influenced by the works of Husserl, Brentano, Stumpf, Merleau-Ponty, and others.Hermeneutic phenomenology offers a different approach to qualitative un- derstanding through the interpretive process of the written and spoken
word. Concepts central to the method include intentionality, essences, intu- iting, reduction, bracketing, embodiment, and being-in-the-world.
Phenomenology as a method of research offers nursing an opportunity to describe and clarify phenomena important to practice, education, and research. Researchers selecting this approach for the investigation of phenomena should base their decision on suitability and a need for further clarification of the selected phenomenon. Specific consideration must be given to the issues of researcher as instrument, data generation, data treat- ment and authenticity, and trustworthiness of data. Investigations that use this approach contribute to nursing’s knowledge base and can provide direction for future investigations.
The relevance of phenomenology as a research method for nursing is clear. Within the qualitative paradigm, this method supports “new initia- tives for nursing care where the subject matter is often not amenable to other investigative and experimental methods” (Jasper, 1994, p. 313).
Nursing maintains a unique appreciation for caring, commitment, and holism. Phenomena related to nursing can be explored and analyzed by phenomenological methods that have as their goal the description of lived experience.
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Phenomenology
in Practice, Education, and Administration
C H A P T E R
6
T
he acceptance of qualitative methods as legitimate approaches to the discovery of knowledge continues to grow as an increasing number of nurse researchers apply these methods to investigations that have as their phenomena of interest people’s life experiences. Very often in nursing, we are faced with practice, education, and administrative experiences that seem to present patterns that are familiar to us. To validate our perceptions, research must be conducted to explore and describe phenomena fully and accurately.This process, in turn, leads to improved understanding and ultimately better outcomes in all domains of nursing. Hudacek’s (2000) book, Making a Difference: Stories from the Point of Care,uses phenomenological principles to analyze nurse stories. Her work has implications for nursing practice, educa- tion, and administration. As evidenced by published works, phenomenology as one approach to qualitative investigations has made a significant contri- bution to the substantive body of nursing knowledge. Qualitative methods allow exploration of the life experiences of human beings in ways that respect and acknowledge the importance of all knowledge to be gained through subjective experiences and the importance of accepting different ways of knowing.
This chapter provides an overview and critique of three phenomenological investigations, published as journal articles, in the areas of nursing practice, education, and administration. An article by Doumit and colleagues (2010)
“Coping with Breast Cancer: A Phenomenological Study” is reprinted at the end of the chapter. It is provided as a sample of a phenomenological inves- tigation and is critiqued to offer the reader an example of the process used to assess the quality of a phenomenological investigation. The practice, ed- ucation, and administrative studies presented in this chapter were reviewed according to the criteria found in Box 6-1. These guidelines offer readers of qualitative investigations a guide to recognizing the essential methodologi- cal points of a published report. The guidelines allow readers to examine how the research has contributed to the scientific base of nursing knowl- edge. This chapter also provides readers with selected examples of published research using the phenomenological method. These examples are presented in Table 6-1.
Box 6-1
Qualitative Critique Criteria Focus/Topic
1. What is the focus or the topic of the study? What is it that the researcher is studying? Is the topic researchable? Is it focused enough to be meaningful but not too limited so as to be trivial?
2. Why is the researcher using a qualitative design? Would the study be more appro- priately conducted in the quantitative paradigm?
3. What is the philosophical tradition or qualitative paradigm upon which the study is based?
Purpose
1. What is the purpose of the study? Is it clear?
Significance
1. What is the relevance of the study to what is already known about the topic?
2. How will the results be useful to nursing and/or health care?
Method
1. Given the topic of the study and the researcher’s stated purpose, how does the selected research method help to achieve the stated purpose?
2. What methodological components/strategies has the researcher identified to conduct the study?
3. Based on the material presented, how does the researcher demonstrate that he or she has followed the method?
4. If the researcher used any form of triangulation, explain how he or she maintained the integrity of the study.
Sampling
1. How were participants selected?
2. Explain how the selection process supports a qualitative sampling paradigm.
3. Are the participants in the study the appropriate people to inform the research?
Explain.