OB scholars have been reluctant to recommend job enrichment as a universal solution to all job performance and satisfaction problems, particularly given the many individual differences among people at work. Their answer to the question
“Is job enrichment for everyone?” is a clear “No.” Present thinking focuses more on a diagnostic approach to job design developed by Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham.20 Their job characteristics model provides a data-based approach for creating job designs with good person–job fi ts that maximize the potential for motivation and performance.
Core Characteristics Figure 6.6 shows how the Hackman and Oldham model informs the process of job design. The higher a job scores on each of these fi ve core characteristics, the higher its motivational potential and the more it is con- sidered to be enriched.21
• Skill variety—the degree to which a job includes a variety of different activities and involves the use of a number of different skills and talents
• Task identity—the degree to which the job requires completion of a “whole”
and identifi able piece of work, one that involves doing a job from beginning to end with a visible outcome
• Task signifi cance—the degree to which the job is important and involves a meaningful contribution to the organization or society in general
• Autonomy—the degree to which the job gives the employee substantial freedom, independence, and discretion in scheduling the work and determin- ing the procedures used in carrying it out
• Job feedback—the degree to which carrying out the work activities provides direct and clear information to the employee regarding how well the job has been done
Psychological Empowerment A job’s motivating potential can be raised by combining tasks to create larger jobs, opening feedback channels to enable work- ers to know how well they are doing, establishing client relationships to experi- ence such feedback directly from customers, and employing vertical loading to create more planning and controlling responsibilities. When the core characteris- tics are enriched in these ways, the job creates what is often called psychologi- cal empowerment—a sense of personal fulfi llment and purpose that arouses one’s feelings of competency and commitment to the work.22 Figure 6.6 identifi es three critical psychological states that have a positive impact on individual moti- vation, performance, and satisfaction: (1) experienced meaningfulness of the work, (2) experienced responsibility for the outcomes of the work, and (3) knowl- edge of actual results of the work.
• Psychological empowerment is a sense of personal fulfi llment and purpose that arouses one’s feelings of competency and commitment to work.
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Motivation and Job Design 135
Moderator Variables The fi ve core job characteristics do not affect all peo- ple in the same way. Rather than accept Herzberg’s implication that enriched jobs should be good for everyone, Hackman and Oldham suggest that enriched jobs will lead to positive outcomes only for those persons who are a good match for them, the person–job fi t again. When the fi t between the person and an enriched job is poor, positive outcomes are less likely and problems are more likely. “Fit” in the job characteristics model is viewed from the perspec- tive of three moderators shown in Figure 6.6.
The fi rst moderator variable is growth-need strength, or the degree to which a person desires the opportunity for self-direction, learning, and personal accom- plishment at work. It is similar to Abraham Maslow’s esteem and self-actualization needs and Alderfer’s growth needs, as discussed in Chapter 5. The expectation here is that people high in growth-need strengths will respond positively to enriched jobs, whereas people low in growth-need strengths will fi nd enriched jobs to be sources of anxiety.
The second moderator is knowledge and skill. People whose capabilities fi t the demands of enriched jobs are predicted to feel good about them and perform well. Those who are inadequate or who feel inadequate in this regard are likely to experience diffi culties. The third moderator is context satisfaction, or the extent to which an employee is satisfi ed with aspects of the work setting such as salary levels, quality of supervision, relationships with co-workers, and working condi- tions. In general, people who are satisfi ed with job context are more likely to do well in enriched jobs.
Research Questions and Answers Experts generally agree that the job characteristics model and its diagnostic approach are useful, although not perfect, guides to job design.23 One note of caution is raised by Gerald Salan- cik and Jeffrey Pfeffer, who question whether jobs have stable and objective
Core job
characteristics
Individual work outcomes Skill variety
Task identity Task significance
High intrinsic work motivation
Autonomy
High-quality work performance High satisfaction with the work Low absenteeism and turnover
Feedback
Critical psychological states Experienced meaningfulness of the work Experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work Knowledge of actual results of the work
Moderators
Growth-need strength Knowledge and skill
“Context” satisfaction
Figure 6.6 Job design considerations according to the job characteristics theory.
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136 6 Motivation and Performance
characteristics to which individuals respond predictably and consis- tently.24 Instead, they view job design from the perspective of social information processing theory. This theory argues that individual needs, task perceptions, and reactions are a result of socially con- structed realities. Suppose that several of your friends tell you that the instructor for a course is bad, the content is boring, and the requirements involve too much work. You may then think that the critical characteristics of the class are the instructor, the content, and the workload, and that they are all bad. All of this may substantially infl uence the way you perceive your instructor and the course, and the way you deal with the class—
regardless of the actual characteristics.
Finally, research suggests the following answers for two common questions about job enrichment and its applications. Should everyone’s job be enriched? The answer is clearly no. The logic of individual differences suggests that not every- one will want an enriched job. Individuals most likely to have positive reactions to job enrichment are those who need achievement, who exhibit a strong work ethic, or who are seeking higher-order growth-need satisfaction at work. Job enrichment also appears to work best when the job context is positive and when workers have the abilities needed to do the enriched job. Costs, technological constraints, and workgroup or union opposition may also make it diffi cult to enrich some jobs. Can job enrichment apply to groups? The answer is yes. The self-managing teams discussed in Chapter 7 are good examples.
New work arrangements are reshaping the traditional 40-hour week, with its 9-to-5 schedules and work done at the company or place of business. Virtually all such plans are designed to improve satisfaction by helping employees balance the demands of their work and nonwork lives.25 They are important as concerns for
“work–life balance” and more “family-friendly” employers are growing ever more apparent. If you have any doubts at all, consider these facts: 78 percent of Amer- ican couples are dual wage earners; 63 percent believe they don’t have enough time for spouses and partners; 74 percent believe they don’t have enough time
LEARNING ROADMAP Compressed Workweeks / Flexible Working Hours / Job Sharing / Telecommuting / Part-Time Work
Alternative Work Schedules
Craft Work Leads to Personal Fulfi llment at Phoenix Bats
Charlie Trudeau used to make baseball bats for himself and his friends.
Now major leaguers are his customers. Each bat is made by hand out of carefully selected wood and designed to the player’s needs. Says Charlie, “it’s got to have the right feel, it’s got to have the right center of balance, and . . . there is no perfect design.”
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for their children; 35 percent are spending time caring for elderly relatives.Both Baby Boomers (87%) and Gen Ys (89%) rate fl exible work as important; they also want opportunities to work remotely at least part of the time—Boomers (63%) and Gen Ys (69%).26