Part-time work has become an increasingly prominent and controversial work arrangement. In temporary part-time work an employee works only when needed and for less than the standard 40-hour workweek. Some choose this schedule because they like it. But others are involuntary part-timers who would prefer a
• In job sharing one full-time job is split between two or more persons who divide the work according to agreed-
upon hours.
• Work sharing is when employees agree to work fewer hours to avoid layoffs.
• Telecommuting is work done at home or from a remote location using computers and advanced telecommunications.
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Key Questions and Answers 139
full-time work schedule but do not have access to one. Someone doing perma- nent part-time work is considered a “permanent” member of the workforce, although still working fewer hours than the standard 40-hour week.
A part-time work schedule can be a benefi t to people who want to sup- plement other jobs or who want something less than a full workweek for a variety of personal reasons. But there are downsides. When a person holds multiple part-time jobs, the work burdens can be stressful; performance may suffer on the job, and spillover effects to family and leisure time can be nega- tive. Also, part-timers often fail to qualify for fringe benefi ts such as health care insurance and retirement plans. And they may be paid less than their full- time counterparts.
Many employers use part-time work to hold down labor costs and to help smooth out peaks and valleys in the business cycle. Temporary part-timers are easily released and hired as needs dictate; during diffi cult business times they will most likely be laid off before full-timers. The use of part- timers is growing as today’s employers try to cut back labor costs. In just one year the number of involuntary part-time workers grew from 4.5 million to 9 million.33
6 study guide
Key Questions and Answers
What is the link between motivation, performance, and rewards?
• The integrated model of motivation brings together insights from content, process, and learning theories around the basic effort n performance n reward linkage.
• Reward systems emphasize a mix of intrinsic rewards—such as a sense of achieve- ment from completing a challenging task, and extrinsic rewards—such as receiving a pay increase.
• Pay for performance systems takes a variety of forms, including merit pay, gain-sharing and profi t-sharing plans, stock options, and employee stock ownership.
Telecommuter Community Forms at Jelly Columbus
A “jelly” is a co-worker community—people who meet together to do individual work in public places like libraries or coffee shops rather than at home. Jody Dzuranin of the Columbus, Ohio, Jelly says: “I call it study hall for adults . . . a nice mix of interacting in person and getting your work done silently.”
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140 6 Motivation and Performance
What are the essentials of performance management?
• Performance management is the process of managing performance measurement and the variety of human resource decisions associated with such measurement.
• Performance measurement serves both an evaluative purpose for reward allocation and a development purpose for future performance improvement.
• Performance measurement can be done using output measures of performance accomplishment or activity measures of performance efforts.
• The ranking, paired comparison, and forced-distribution approaches are examples of comparative performance appraisal methods.
• The graphic rating scale and the behaviorally anchored rating scale use individual ratings on personal and performance characteristics to appraise performance.
• 3608 appraisals involve the full circle of contacts a person may have in job performance—from bosses to peers to subordinates to internal and external customers.
• Common performance measurement errors include halo errors, central tendency errors, recency errors, personal bias errors, and cultural bias errors.
How do job designs infl uence motivation and performance?
• Job design by scientifi c management or job simplifi cation standardizes work and employs people in clearly defi ned and specialized tasks.
• Job enlargement increases task variety by combining two or more tasks previously assigned to separate workers; job rotation increases task variety by periodically rotating workers among jobs involving different tasks; job enrichment builds bigger and more responsible jobs by adding planning and evaluating duties.
• The job characteristics model offers a diagnostic approach to job enrichment based on analysis of fi ve core job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task signifi cance, autonomy, and feedback.
• The job characteristics model does not assume that everyone wants an enriched job;
it indicates that job enrichment will be more successful for persons with high growth needs, requisite job skills, and context satisfaction.
What are the motivational opportunities of alternative work arrangements?
• The compressed workweek allows a full-time workweek to be completed in fewer than fi ve days, typically offering four 10-hour days of work and three days free.
• Flexible working hours allow employees some daily choice in scheduling core and fl ex time.
• Job sharing occurs when two or more people divide one full-time job according to agreements among themselves and the employer.
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Self-Test 6 141
Terms to Know
Activity measures (p. 128) Behaviorally anchored rating
scale (p. 129) Bonuses (p. 126)
Compressed workweek (p. 137) Critical incident diaries (p. 129) Employee stock ownership
plans (p. 126)
Extrinsic rewards (p. 123) Flexible working hours (p. 137) Forced distribution (p. 128) Gain sharing (p. 126)
Graphic rating scales (p. 128) Intrinsic rewards (p. 123) Job design (p. 131) Job enlargement (p. 133) Job enrichment (p. 133) Job rotation (p. 133) Job sharing (p. 138) Job simplifi cation (p. 132) Merit pay (p. 124) Motivation (p. 122) Output measures (p. 128) Paired comparison (p. 128)
Performance-contingent pay (p. 124) Profi t sharing (p. 126)
Psychological empowerment (p. 134) Ranking (p. 128)
Reliability (p. 131)
Scientifi c management (p. 132) Skill-based pay (p. 126) Stock options (p. 126) Telecommuting (p. 138) 3608 evaluation (p. 131) Validity (p. 131) Work sharing (p. 138)
Self-Test 6
Multiple Choice
1. In the integrated model of motivation, what predicts effort? (a) rewards (b) organiza- tional support (c) ability (d) motivation
2. Pay is generally considered a/an ____________ reward, while a sense of personal growth experienced from working at a task is an example of a/an ____________
reward. (a) extrinsic, skill-based (b) skill-based, intrinsic (c) extrinsic, intrinsic (d) absolute, comparative
3. If someone improves productivity by developing a new work process and receives a portion of the productivity savings as a monetary reward, this is an example of a/an ____________ pay plan. (a) cost-sharing (b) gain-sharing (c) ESOP (d) stock option
4. Performance measurement serves both evaluation and ____________ purposes.
(a) reward allocation (b) counseling (c) discipline (d) benefi ts calculations 5. Which form of performance assessment is an example of the comparative
approach? (a) forced distribution (b) graphic rating scale (c) BARS (d) critical incident diary
• Telecommuting involves work at home or at a remote location while communicating with the home offi ce as needed via computer and related technologies.
• Part-time work requires less than a 40-hour workweek and can be done on a temporary or permanent schedule.
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142 6 Motivation and Performance
6. If a performance assessment method fails to accurately measure a person’s perfor- mance on actual job content, it lacks ____________. (a) performance contingency (b) leniency (c) validity (d) strictness
7. A written record that describes in detail various examples of a person’s positive and negative work behaviors is most likely part of which performance appraisal method?
(a) forced distribution (b) critical incident diary (c) paired comparison (d) graphic rating scale
8. When a team leader evaluates the performance of all team members as “average,”
the possibility for ____________ error in the performance appraisal is quite high.
(a) personal bias (b) recency (c) halo (d) central tendency
9. Job simplifi cation is closely associated with ____________ as originally developed by Frederick Taylor. (a) vertical loading (b) horizontal loading (c) scientifi c manage- ment (d) self-effi cacy
10. Job ____________ increases job ____________ by combining into one job several tasks of similar diffi culty. (a) rotation, depth (b) enlargement, depth (c) rotation, breadth (d) enlargement, breadth
11. If a manager redesigns a job through vertical loading, she would most likely ____________. (a) bring tasks from earlier in the workfl ow into the job (b) bring tasks from later in the workfl ow into the job (c) bring higher level or managerial responsibilities into the job (d) raise the standards for high performance
12. In the job characteristics model, a person will be most likely to fi nd an enriched job motivating if he or she ____________. (a) receives stock options (b) has ability and support (c) is unhappy with job context (d) has strong growth needs
13. In the job characteristics model, ____________ indicates the degree to which an individual is able to make decisions affecting his or her work. (a) task variety (b) task identity (c) task signifi cance (d) autonomy
14. When a job allows a person to do a complete unit of work, for example, process an insurance claim from point of receipt from the customer to the point of fi nal resolution, it would be considered high on which core characteristic? (a) task identity (b) task signifi cance (c) task autonomy (d) feedback
15. The “4/40” is a type of ____________ work arrangement. (a) compressed workweek (b) “allow workers to change machine confi gurations to make different products”
(c) job-sharing (d) permanent part-time
Short Response
16. Explain how a 3608 evaluation works as a performance appraisal approach.
17. Explain the difference between halo errors and recency errors in performance assessment.
18. What role does growth-need strength play in the job characteristics model?
19. What are the potential advantages and disadvantages of a compressed workweek?
Applications Essay
20. Choose a student organization on your campus. Discuss in detail how the concepts and ideas in this chapter could be applied in various ways to improve motivation and performance among its members.
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Next Steps 143
Next Steps
Top Choices from The OB Skills Workbook
Cases for Critical Thinking
Team and Experiential Exercises
Self-Assessment Portfolio
• Perfect Pizzeria
• Hovey and Beard
• My Fantasy Job
• My Best Job
• Tinkertoys
• Job Design Preferences
• Personal Values
• Are You Cosmopolitan?
• Managerial Assumptions
• Twenty-fi rst Century Manager
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144
Whole Foods: Teaming Up for Success
Only two things unite the more than 300 Whole Foods Market locations: coordinated teamwork and the infl ex- ible rule that all food sold must be free from artifi cial additives, sweeteners, colorings, and preservatives.a The rest is up to the individual stores. This balance between dogma and freedom permits stores to make decisions based on the input from their local teams instead of solely taking orders from corporate honchos. At Whole Foods, department members work as a team. Teams within stores operate as a team. Parallel departments in regional stores team up. And all stores within each of Whole Foods’ 12 regions work as a team.
While Whole Foods does have a core management team, led by founder John Mackey and co-president Walter Robb, the regions operate largely free from corporate interference.
Every store becomes local, and individual departments have license to develop personalities. Each market is free to act like a neighborhood store that just happens to be part of a huge franchise.
John Moore, former National Marketing Director of Whole Foods, identifi es a “Libertarian”
theme of management running through the company. “[Whole Foods] operates under the belief stores should have the freedom to meet the needs of its unique customers and team members.”b
Each district, headed by its own president, oversees most of the corporate functions you’d expect to be run from a com- pany’s world headquarters, like marketing, HR, and payroll.
Districts procure most of their stores’ products and customize new-employee training to fi t their own personalities. In doing so, districts operate with the nimbleness of a regionally sized company but benefi t from consumers’ loyalty to a well-loved national brand.c
Walter Robb thinks that the glue binding the employees,
stores, and regions is Whole Foods’ unique corporate culture. “When people copy us,” he says, “they can copy our fi xtures and design, but they can’t chase the culture because they’re chasing a shadow.”d
“Culture is our secret weapon.”
—Walter Robb, co-president of Whole Foods.e
FYI: Whole Foods is proud of the diversity its employees represent. In one Atlanta store, employees speak over 50 languages.f
Quick Summary
• John Mackey opened the fi rst Whole Foods Market in Austin, Texas, in 1980. The company now operates more than 300 locations in the United States and the United Kingdom.
• Instead of relying solely on top-down management, Whole Foods divides the stores into 12 districts, granting them autonomy over most purchasing and managerial decisions.
• Stores and the departments within are organized into teams. Whole Foods encourages each to develop unique local personalities and cater to their specifi c neighborhoods.
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➠
1457 Teams in Organizations
the key point
The Whole Foods story highlights how organizations can benefi t from teams and teamwork.
Teams that achieve synergy bring out the best in their members in respect to performance, creativity, and enthusiasm. But we all know that teamwork isn’t always easy and that teams sometimes underperform. Anyone seeking career success must be prepared to work well in a wide variety of team settings.
chapter at a glance
What Are Teams and How Are They Used in Organizations?
When Is a Team Effective?
What Are the Stages of Team Development?
How Can We Understand Teams at Work?
what’s inside?
ETHICS IN OB
CHEAT NOW . . . CHEAT LATER
FINDING THE LEADER IN YOU
TEAMWORK TURNS NASCAR’S KEY TO THE FAST LANE
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
SOCIAL LOAFING AND SURVIVOR
RESEARCH INSIGHT
MEMBERSHIP, INTERACTIONS, AND EVALUATION INFLUENCE SOCIAL LOAFING IN GROUPS
synergy is the goal
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146 7 Teams in Organizations
Head’s Up—Don’t Forget These “Must-Have”
Contributions by Team Members
• Putting personal talents to work.
• Encouraging and motivating others.
• Accepting sugges- tions.
• Listening to different points of view.
• Communicating information and ideas.
• Persuading others to cooperate.
• Resolving and negotiating confl ict.
• Building consensus.
• Fulfi lling commitments.
• Avoiding disruptive acts and words.
The fact is that there is a lot more to teamwork than simply assigning members to the same group, calling it a “team,” appointing someone as “team leader,”
and then expecting them all to do a great job.1 That’s part of the lesson in the opening example of Whole Foods. And it is a good introduction to the four chapters in this part of the book that are devoted to an understanding of teams and team processes. As the discussion begins, it helps to remember that the responsibilities for building high-performance teams rest not only with the manager, coach, or team leader, but also with the team members themselves. If you look now at the sidebar, you’ll fi nd a checklist of several must-have team contri- butions, the types of things that team members and leaders can do to help their teams achieve high performance.2