Sir Richard Branson, well-known founder of Virgin Group, is a believer in positive reinforcement.
“For the people who work for you or with you, you must lavish praise on them at all times,” he says. “If a fl ower is watered, it fl ourishes. If not it shrivels up and dies.” And besides, he goes on to add: “It’s much more fun looking for the best in people.”
Virgin Group is a business conglomerate employing many thousands of people around the globe. It even holds a space venture—Virgin Galactic. It’s all
very creative and ambitious—but that’s Branson. “I love to learn things I know little about,” he says.
Yet if you bump into Branson on the street you might be sur- prised. He’s casual, he’s smiling, and he’s fun; he’s also considered brilliant when it comes to business and leadership. His goal is to build Virgin into “the most respected brand in the world.”
As the man behind the Virgin brand, Branson is described as
“fl amboyant,” something that he doesn’t deny and also considers a major business advantage that keeps him and his ventures in the public eye.
About leadership Branson says:
“Having a personality of caring about people is important . . . You can’t be a good leader unless you generally like people. That is how you bring out the best in them.” He claims his own style was shaped by his family and childhood. At age 10 his mother put him on a 300-mile bike ride to build character and endurance. At 16 he started a student magazine. By the age of 22 he was launching Virgin record stores. And by the time he was 30 Virgin Group was running at high speed.
As for himself, Branson says he’ll probably never retire. Now known as Sir Richard after being knighted, he enjoys Virgin today
“as a way of life.” But he also says that “In the next stage of my life I want to use our business skills to tackle social issues around the world . . . Malaria in Africa kills four million people a year. AIDS kills even more . . . I don’t want to waste this fabulous situation in which I’ve found myself.”
What’s the Lesson Here?
Sir Richard obviously has confi - dence in himself as both a person and a leader. How much of his busi- ness and leadership success comes from management of his public impression? Is this something we might all use to advantage? And when he says “you must lavish praise all the time” on the people who work for you, is he giving us an example of the law of effect in action? Finally, Branson seems to have moved beyond the quest for personal business success; he’s now talking about real social impact. Is that a natural progression for successful entrepreneurs and business executives?
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92 4 Perception, Attribution, and Learning
OB IN POPULAR CULTURE
POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT AND THE BIG BANG THEORY Learning is an important part of an individual’s development. In the workplace, reinforcement can be used to help employees learn proper behavior. Through the principle of operant conditioning, reinforcement uses consequences to help mold the behavior of others.
In one episode of “The Big Bang Theory” Leonard, Penny, and Sheldon are watching anime on television. Penny is bored with a show she does not understand and begins to tell a story about a high school classmate named Anna Mae. Sheldon uses chocolate to get her to stop talking. Later, when Penny’s cell phone rings, Sheldon again uses chocolate to get Penny to take the call in the hallway. Leonard discovers the tactic and forbids Sheldon from experimenting with Penny. Sheldon then sprays Leonard with a water bottle (punishment).
The episode is hilarious yet serious. It demonstrates how easily behavior can be infl uenced through the proper application of operant conditioning techniques. However, it’s important to remember that what works at one point in time may not work at another. If Sheldon continues to give Penny chocolates, for example, will she eventually lose her desire for them and the reinforcement will no longer be effective?
Get to Know Yourself Better Take a look at Experiential Exercise 12, The Down- side of Punishment, in the OB Skills Workbook. The focus of the exercise is entirely on punishment. Why do you think this is the case? Have you ever experienced punishment as a student or an employee? What was your reaction? Have you ever seen a boss punish an employee in front of co-workers or customers? Is this an effective way to change behavior? If you were a teacher, how would you handle a behavior problem with a student—such as unwanted text messaging in class?
To have maximum reinforcement value, a reward must be delivered only if the desired behavior is exhibited. That is, the reward must be contingent on the desired behavior. This principle is known as the law of contingent reinforce- ment. For example, a supervisor’s praise should be contingent on the worker’s doing something identifi ably well, such as giving a constructive suggestion in a meeting. Also, the reward must be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior. This is known as the law of immediate reinforcement.31 If the super- visor waits for the annual performance review to praise a worker for providing constructive comments, the law of immediate reinforcement would be violated.
Shaping The power of positive reinforcement can be mobilized through a pro- cess known as shaping. This is the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it. For example, new machine operators in the Ford Motor casting operation in Ohio must learn a complex series of tasks in pouring molten metal into castings in order to avoid gaps, over- fi lls, or cracks.32 The molds are fi lled in a three-step process, with each step pro- gressively more diffi cult than its predecessor. Astute master craftspersons fi rst show newcomers how to pour as the fi rst step and give praise based on what
• The law of contingent reinforcement states a reward should only be given when the desired behavior occurs.
• The law of immediate reinforcement states a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs.
• Shaping is positive reinforcement of successive approximations to the desired behavior.
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Learning by Reinforcement 93
Figure 4.8 Alternative schedules of positive reinforcement.
Fixed interval Reinforcer given after a given time
Weekly or monthly paychecks Regularly scheduled exams
Fixed ratio Reinforcer given after a given number of behavior occurrences Piece-rate pay
Commissioned salespeople:
certain amount is given for each dollar of sales
Variable interval Reinforcer given at random times Occasional praise by boss on unscheduled visits Unspecified number of pop quizzes to students
Variable ratio Reinforcer given after a random number of behavior
occurrences
Random quality checks with praise for zero defects Commissioned salespeople:
a varying number of calls are required to obtain a given sale
Interval Ratio
Fixed
Variable
Time-based Behavior occurrence–based
they did right. As the apprentices gain experience, they are given praise only when all of the elements of the fi rst step are completed successfully. Once the apprentices have mastered the fi rst step, they move to the second. Reinforcement is given only when the entire fi rst step and an aspect of the second step are com- pleted successfully. Over time, apprentices learn all three steps and are given contingent positive rewards immediately upon completing a casting that has no cracks or gaps. In this way behavior is shaped gradually rather than changed all at once.
Scheduling Positive Reinforcement Positive reinforcement can be given on either continuous or intermittent schedules. Continuous reinforcement admin- isters a reward each time a desired behavior occurs, whereas intermittent rein- forcement rewards behavior only periodically. In general, continuous reinforce- ment draws forth a desired behavior more quickly than does intermittent reinforcement. But it is costly in the consumption of rewards, and the behavior is more easily extinguished when reinforcement is no longer present. Behavior acquired under intermittent reinforcement is more resistant to extinction and lasts longer upon the discontinuance of reinforcement. This is why shaping typically begins with a continuous reinforcement schedule and then gradually shifts to an intermittent one.
As shown in Figure 4.8, intermittent reinforcement can be given according to fi xed or variable schedules. Variable schedules typically result in more consistent patterns of desired behavior than do fi xed reinforcement schedules. Fixed- interval schedules provide rewards at the fi rst appearance of a behavior after a given time has elapsed. Fixed-ratio schedules result in a reward each time a certain number of the behaviors have occurred. A variable-interval schedule rewards behavior at random times, while a variable-ratio schedule rewards behavior after a random number of occurrences.
• Continuous
reinforcement administers a reward each time a desired behavior occurs.
• Intermittent reinforcement rewards behavior only periodically.
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94 4 Perception, Attribution, and Learning