IV. ACCOMMODATION IN REVELATION
3. JOINT AND CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY
Up to this point we have spoken of individual accountability, but the subject becomes more complicated when we think of the joint
responsibility of several or many persons. From the first the human mind has been haunted by what is called the guilt of Adam’s first sin. There is a solidarity in the human race, and the inheritance of evil is too obvious to be denied even by the most optimistic. There is far, however, from being agreement of opinion as to the relation of the individual to this evil legacy;
some contending fiercely against the idea that the individual can have any personal responsibility for a sin hidden in a past so distant and shadowy, while others maintain that the misery which has certainly been inherited by all can only be justified in a world governed by a God of justice if the guilt of all precedes the misery. The question enters deeply into the Pauline scheme, although at the most critical point it is much disputed what the Apostle’s real position is. While joint responsibility burdens the individual conscience, it may, at the same time, be said to lighten it. Thus, in Ezekiel 18 one of the most weighty ethical discussions to be found in Holy Writ is introduced with the popular proverb, “The fathers have eaten
sour grapes, and the children’s teeth are set on edge,” which proves to be a way of saying that the responsibility of children is lightened, if not
abolished, through their connection with their parents. In the same way, at the present time, the sense of responsibility is enfeebled in many minds through the control over character and destroy ascribed to heredity and environment. Even criminality is excused on the ground that many have never had a chance of virtue, and it is contended that to know everything is to forgive everything. There can be no doubt that, as the agents of trusts and partnerships, men will allow themselves to do what they would never have thought of in private business; and in a crowd the individual sustains psychological modifications by which he is made to act very differently from his ordinary self. In the actions of nations, such as war, there is a vast and solemn responsibility somewhere; but it is often extremely difficult to locate whether in the ruler, the ministry or the people. So interesting and perplexing are such problems often that a morality for bodies of people, as distinguished from individuals, is felt by many to be the great desideratum of ethics at the present time.
On this subject something will be found in most of the works on either philosophical or Christian ethics; see especially Lemme’s Christliche Ethik, 242 ff.
James Stalker
ACCOZ
<ak’-oz> ([∆Akbw>v, Akbos]; the Revised Version (British and American) AKKOS, which see): 1 Esdras 5:38, head of one of the priestly families, which returned from the Exile, but was unable to prove its descent, when the register was searched. See also <150261>
Ezra 2:61.
ACCURSED
<a-kurs’-ed>, <a-kurst’>: In the Book of Joshua (6:17,18;
7:1,11,12,13,15) and 1 Chronicles (2:7) “accursed” (or “accursed thing” or
“thing accursed”) is the King James Version rendering of the Hebrew word,
µr<je
[cherem]. The the Revised Version (British and American) consistently uses “devoted” or “devoted thing,” which the King James Version also adopts in <032721>Leviticus 27:21,28,29 and in <041814>
Numbers 18:14.
“Cursed thing” is the rendering in two passages (<050726>
Deuteronomy 7:26;
13:17); and in one passage (<264429>
Ezekiel 44:29 the King James Version)
“dedicated thing” is used. In four places the King James Version renders the word by “curse” (<060618>
Joshua 6:18; <233405>
Isaiah 34:5; 43:28; <390302>
Malachi 3:24; (4:6)) whilst in, another passage (<381411>
Zechariah 14:11) “utter
destruction” is adopted in translation. These various renderings are due to the fact that the word cherem sometimes means the act of devoting or banning (or the condition or state resulting therefrom and sometimes the object devoted or banned. We occasionally find periphrastic renderings, e.g. <091521>
1 Samuel 15:21: “the chief of the things which should have been utterly destroyed,” the King James Version (literally, “the chief part of the ban”); <112042>
1 Kings 20:42: “a man whom I appointed to utter destruction,”
the King James Version (literally, “a man of my ban” (or “banning”). The root-word meant “to separate,” “shut off.” The Arabic charim denoted the precincts of the temple at Mecca, and also the women’s apartment
(whence the word “harem”). In Hebrew the word always suggested
“separating” or “devoting to God.” Just as
vdq;
[qadhosh], meant “holy”or “consecrated to the service” of Yahweh, and so not liable to be used for ordinary or secular purposes, so the stem of [cherem] meant “devoting” to Yahweh anything which would, if spared, corrupt or contaminate the religious life of Israel, with the further idea of destroying (things) or exterminating (persons) as the surest way of avoiding such contamination.
Everything that might paganize or affect the unique character of the religion of Israel was banned, e.g. idols (<050726>
Deuteronomy 7:26); idolatrous persons (<022220>
Exodus 22:20); idolatrous cities (<051313>
Deuteronomy 13:13-18).
All Canaanite towns — where the cult of Baal flourished — were to be banned (<052016>
Deuteronomy 20:16-18). The ban did not always apply to the gold and silver of looted cities (<060624>
Joshua 6:24). Such valuable articles were to be placed in the “treasury of the house of Yahweh.” This probably indicates a slackening of the rigid custom which involved the total destruction of the spoil. According to <041814>
Numbers 18:14, “everything devoted in Israel” belonged to Aaron, and <264429>
Ezekiel 44:29 the King James Version ordained that “every dedicated thing” should belong to the priests (compare <151008>
Ezra 10:8). In the New Testament “accursed” is the King James Version rendering of ANATHEMA (which see).
Thomas Lewis
ACCUSER
<a-kuz’-er>: This word, not found in the Old Testament, is the rendering of two Greek words:
(1) [Kath>gopov, kategoros], that is, a prosecutor, or plaintiff in a lawsuit, or one who speaks in a derogatory way of another (<442330>
Acts 23:30,35; 25:16,18; <661210>
Revelation 12:10);
(2) [Dia>bolov, diabolos], meaning adversary or enemy. This word is rendered “accuser” in the King James Version and “slanderer” in the Revised Version (British and American) and the American Standard Revised Version (<550303>
2 Timothy 3:3; <560203>
Titus 2:3). According to the rabbinic teaching Satan, or the devil, was regarded as hostile to God and man, and that it was a part of his work to accuse the latter of
disloyalty and sin before the tribunal of the former (see <180106>
Job 1:6 ff;
<380301>
Zechariah 3:1 f; <661210>
Revelation 12:10).
W. W. Davies
ACELDAMA
<a-sel’-da-ma>.
See AKELDAMA.
ACHAIA
<a-ka’-ya> ([∆Acaia>, Achaia]): The smallest country in the Peloponnesus lying along the southern shore of the Corinthian Gulf, north of Arcadia and east of Elis. The original inhabitants were Ionians, but these were crowded out later by the Acheans, who came from the East. According to
Herodotus, the former founded twelve cities, many of which retain their original names to this day. These cities were on the coast and formed a confederation of smaller communities, which in the last century of the independent history of Greece attained to great importance (Achaean League). In Roman times the term Achaia was used to include the whole of Greece, exclusive of Thessaly. Today Achaia forms with Elis one district, and contains a population of nearly a quarter of a million. The old Achean League was renewed in 280 BC, but became more important in 251, when
Aratus of Sicyon was chosen commander-in-chief. This great man increased the power of the League and gave it an excellent constitution, which our own great practical politicians, Hamilton and Madison, consulted, adopting many of its prominent devices, when they set about framing the Constitution of the United States. In 146 BC Corinth was destroyed and the League broken up (see 1 Macc 15:23); and the whole of Greece, under the name of Achaia, was transformed into a Roman
province, which was divided into two separate provinces, Macedonia and Achaia, in 27 BC.
In <441812>
Acts 18:12 we are told that the Jews in Corinth made insurrection against Paul when Gallio was deputy of Achaia, and in 18:27 that Apollos was making preparations to set out for Achaia In <451605>
Romans 16:5,
“Achaia” should read “ASIA” as in the Revised Version (British and American). In <442002>
Acts 20:2 “Greece” means Achaia, but the oft-mentioned
“Macedonia and Achaia” generally means the whole of Greece (<441921>
Acts 19:21; <451526>
Romans 15:26; <520108>
1 Thessalonians 1:8). Paul commends the churches of Achaia for their liberality (<470913>
2 Corinthians 9:13).
LITERATURE.
See Gerhard, Ueber den Volksstamm der A. (Berlin, 1854); Klatt, Forschungen zur Geschichte des achaischen Bundes (Berlin, 1877); M.
Dubois, Les ligues etolienne et acheenne (Paris, 1855); Capes, History of the Achean League (London, 1888); Mahaffy, Problems, 177-86; Busolt, Greek Staatsalter, 2nd edition (1892), 347 ff; Toeppfer, in Pauly’s Realencyclopaedie.
For Aratus see Hermann, Staatsalter, 1885; Krakauer, Abhandlung ueber Aratus (Breslau, 1874); Neumeyer, Aratus aus Sikyon (Leipzig, 1886);
Holm, History of Greece.
J. E. Harry
ACHAICUS
<a-ka’-i-kus> ([∆Acaiko>v, Achaikos], “belonging to Achaia”): A name honorably conferred upon L. Mummius, conqueror of Corinth and Achaia (compare CORINTH). Achaicus was one of the leaders of the Corinthian
church (to be inferred from <461615>
1 Corinthians 16:15 ff) who, visiting Paul at Ephesus with Stephanas and Fortunatus, greatly relieved the Apostle’s anxiety for the Corinthian church (compare <460501>
1 Corinthians 5:1 ff). Paul admonishes the members of the Corinthians church to submit to their authority (compare <520512>
1 Thessalonians 5:12) and to acknowledge their work (<461615>
1 Corinthians 16:15 ff).
ACHAN
<a’-kan> (
ˆk;[;
[`akhan] (in <130207>1 Chronicles 2:7 Achar,
rk;[;
[`akhar],“troubler”): The descendant of Zerah the son of Judah who was put to death, in Joshua’s time, for stealing some of the “devoted” spoil of the city of Jericho (Joshua 7). The stem [`akhan] is not used in Hebrew except in this name. The stem `akhar has sufficient use to define it. It denotes trouble of the most serious kind — Jacob’s trouble when his sons had brought him into blood feud with his Canaanite neighbors, or Jephthah’s trouble when his vow required him to sacrifice his daughter (<013430>
Genesis 34:30; <071135>
Judges 11:35). In Proverbs (11:17,29; 15:6,27) the word is used with intensity to describe the results of cruelty, disloyalty, greed,
wickedness. The record especially speaks of Achan’s conduct as the troubling of Israel (<130207>
1 Chronicles 2:7; <060618>
Joshua 6:18; 7:24). In an outburst of temper Jonathan speaks of Saul as having troubled the land (<091429>
1 Samuel 14:29). Elijah and Ahab accuse each the other of being the troubler of Israel (<111817>
1 Kings 18:17,18). The stem also appears in the two proper names ACHOR and OCHRAN (which see).
The crime of Achan was a serious one. Quite apart from all questions of supposable superstition, or even religion, the [cherem] concerning Jericho had been proclaimed, and to disobey the proclamation was disobedience to military orders in an army that was facing the enemy. It is commonly held that Achan’s family were put to death with him, though they were
innocent; but the record is not explicit on these points. One whose habits of thought lead him to expect features of primitive savagery in such a case as this will be sure to find what he expects; a person of different habits will not be sure that the record says that any greater cruelty was practiced on the family of Achan than that of compelling them to be present at the execution. Those who hold that the Deuteronomic legislation comes in any
sense from Moses should not be in haste to think that its precepts were violated by Joshua in the case of Achan (see <052416>
Deuteronomy 24:16).
The record says that the execution took place in the arable valley of Achor, up from the Jordan valley.
See ACHOR.
Willis J. Beecher
ACHAR
<a’-kar>: Variant of ACHAN, which see.
ACHAZ
<a’-kaz> ([&Acaz, Achaz]), the King James Version (<400109>
Matthew 1:9):
Greek form of Ahaz (thus the Revised Version (British and American)).
The name of a King of Israel.
ACHBOR
<ak’-bor> (
rwOBk][“
[`akhbor], “mouse”):(1)
The father of Baal-hanan, who was the seventh of the eight kings who reigned in Edom before there were kings in Israel (<013638>Genesis 36:38,39; <130149>
1 Chronicles 1:49).
(2)
The son of Micaiah (called in Chronicles Abdon the son of Micah) who went with Hilkiah the priest and other high officials, at the command of King Josiah, to consult Huldah the prophetess concerning the book that had been found (<122212>2 Kings 22:12,14; <143420>
2 Chronicles 34:20).
It may be presumed that this Achbor is also the man mentioned in Jeremiah (26:22; 36:12) as the father of Elnathan, who went to Egypt for King Jehoiakim in order to procure the extradition of Uriah the prophet, and who protested against the burning of Baruch’s roll.
Willis J. Beecher
ACHIACHARUS
<a-ki-ak’-a-rus> (Codex Vaticanus [∆Acia>carov, Achiacharos];
[∆Axei>carov, Acheicharos]): Governor of Assyria. Achiacharus is the son of Anael, a brother of Tobit (Tobit 1:21). Sarchedonus (Esarhaddon), the king of Assyria, appointed him over all “accounts of his kingdom” and over all “his affairs” (Tobit 1:21 f; compare <270248>
Daniel 2:48). At his request Tobit comes to Nineveh (Tobit 1:22). Achiacharus nourishes Tobit, while the latter is afflicted with disease (Tobit 2:10). He attends the wedding- feast of Tobias (Tobit 11:18). Is persecuted by Aman, but saved (Tobit 14:10).
ACHIAS
<a-ki’-as>: An ancestor of Ezra (2 Esdras 1:2). Omitted in other genealogies.
ACHIM
<a’-kim> ([∆Acei>m, Acheim]): A descendant of Zerubbabel and ancestor of Jesus, mentioned only in <400114>
Matthew 1:14.
ACHIOR
<a’-ki-or> ([∆Aciw>r, Achior]): General of the Ammonites, who spoke in behalf of Israel before Holofernes, the Assyrian general (Judith 5:5 ff).
Holofernes ordered him bound and delivered at Bethulia to the Israelites (Judith 6), who received him gladly and with honor. Afterward he became a proselyte, was circumcised, and joined to Israel (Judith 14). In
<043427>
Numbers 34:27 it is the Septuagint reading for Ahihud, and in the Hebrew would be
rwOayjia}
[’achi’or], “brother of light.”ACHIPHA
<ak’-i-fa>; the King James Version Acipha, <as’-i-fa> ([∆Acifa>,
Achipha]), in the Apocrypha (1 Esdras 5:31) head of one of the families of the temple-servants, who returned with Zerubbabel, same as the Old Testament HAKUPHA (<150251>
Ezra 2:51; <160753>
Nehemiah 7:53), which see.
ACHISH
<a’-kish> (
vykia;
[’akhish]): King of the city of Gath in the days of David. His father’s name is given as Maoch (<092702>1 Samuel 27:2), and Maacah (<110239>
1 Kings 2:39). David sought the protection of Achish when he first fled from Saul, and just after his visit to Nob (<092110>
1 Samuel 21:10-15).
Fearing rough treatment or betrayal by Achish, he feigned madness. But this made him unwelcome, whereupon he fled to the Cave of Adullam (<092201>
1 Samuel 22:1). Later in his fugitive period David returned to Gath to be hospitably received by Achish (<092701>
1 Samuel 27:1 ff), who gave him the town of Ziklag for his home. A year later, when the Philistines invaded the land of Israel, in the campaign which ended so disastrously for Saul (1 Samuel 31), Achish wished David to participate (<092801>
1 Samuel 28:1-2), but the lords of the Philistines objected so strenuously, when they found him and his men with the forces of Achish, that Achish was compelled to send them back. Achish must have been a young man at this time, for he was still ruling forty years later at the beginning of Solomon’s reign (<110239>
1 Kings 2:39). He is mentioned as Abimelech in the title of Psalm 34.
See ABIMELECH 3.
Edward Mack
ACHITOB
<ak’-i-tob>: Same as Ahitob. Used in 1 Esdras 8:2; compare 2 Esdras 1:1 the King James Version.
See AHITUB 3.
ACHMETHA
<ak’-me-tha> (<150602>
Ezra 6:2;
at;m]j]a”
[’achmetha’]; Septuagint [∆Amaqa>, Amatha]; Peshitta achmathan; in Tiglath Pileser’s inscription circa 1100 BC Amadana: in Darius’ Behistun Inscr., II, 76-78, Hangmatana= “Place of Assembly”; [∆Agba>tana, Agbatana], in Herodotus;
[∆Ekba>tana, Ekbatana], Xenophon, etc.; so 1 Esdras 6:23; Tobit 3:7; 6:5;
7:1; 14:12,14; Judith 1:1,2,14; 2 Macc 9:3; Talmud
ˆD:m]h”
[hamdan];now [hamadan]).