On the whole, unquestionably, the practice and teachings of the apostles and early Christians were in harmony with the example and teaching of the Master. But a tendency, partly innate, partly transmitted from Jewish legalism, and partly pagan, showed itself among their successors and gave rise to the Vita Religiosa and Dualism which found their fullest expression in Monasticism.
It is worthy of note that the alleged words of Jesus: `But this kind goeth not out save by prayer and fasting’ (<410929>
Mark 9:29; <401721>
Matthew 17:21 the King James Version), are corruptions of the text. (Compare Tobit 12:8;
Sirach 34:26; <420237>
Luke 2:37). The Oxyrhynchus fragment (disc. 1897) contains a logion with the words legei Iesous, ean me nesteuete ton
kosmon, ou me heurete ten basileian tou theou: “Jesus saith, Except ye fast to the world, ye shall in no wise find the Kingdom of God,” but the
“fasting” here is clearly metaphorical.
LITERATURE.
Bingham, Antiquities, W. Bright, Some Aspects of Primitive Church Life (1898), J. O. Hannay, The Spirit and Origin of Christian Monasticism (1902), and The Wisdom of the Desert (1904); Thomas a Kempis, Imitation of Christ, Migne, Dictionnaire d’ Ascetisme, and Encyclopedia Theol., XLV, XLVI, 45, 46; Jewish Encyclopedia, and Bible Dictionaries at the place.
George B. Eager
ABUBUS
<a-bu’-bus> ([&Aboubov, Aboubos]): The father of Ptolemy, who deceitfully slew Simon Maccabee and his sons at Dok near Jericho (1 Macc 16:11,15).
ABUNDANCE; ABUNDANT
<a-bun’-dans>, <a-bun’-dant>.
See ABOUND.
ABUSE
<a-buz’>: “To dishonor,” “to make mock of,” “to insult,” etc.
(1) Translated in the Old Testament from
ll”[;
[`alal], “to do harm,” “to defile” (<071925>Judges 19:25), “to make mock of” (<093104>
1 Samuel 31:4).
(2) Translated in the New Testament from [ajrsenokoi>thv,
arsenokoites], literally, “one who lies with a male,” “a sodomite” (<460609>
1 Corinthians 6:9; <540110>
1 Timothy 1:10; the King James Version “for them that defile themselves with mankind”).
(3) In the King James Version <460731>
1 Corinthians 7:31 “as not abusing it,”
from [katacra>omai, katachraomai], “to abuse,” i.e. misuse; the Revised Version (British and American) “using it to the full,” also <460918>
1 Corinthians 9:18.
See USE.
ABYSS, THE
<a-bis’>, ([hJ aj>bussov, he abussos]): In classical Greek the word is always an adjective, and is used
(1) literally, “very deep,” “bottomless”;
(2) figuratively, “unfathomable,” “boundless.”
“Abyss” does not occur in the King James Version but the Revised Version (British and American) so transliterates [aj>bussov abussos] in each case. The the King James Version renders the Greek by “the deep” in two passages (<420831>
Luke 8:31; <451007>
Romans 10:7). In Revelation the King James Version renders by “the bottomless pit” (<660901>
Revelation 9:1,2,11;
11:7; 17:8; 20:1,3). In the Septuagint abussos is the rendering of the Hebrew word
µwOhT]
[tehom]. According to primitive Semitic cosmogony the earth was supposed to rest on a vast body of water which was the source of all springs of water and rivers (<010102>Genesis 1:2; <050807>
Deuteronomy 8:7; <192402>
Psalm 24:2; 136:6). This subterranean ocean is sometimes described as “the water under the earth” (<022004>
Exodus 20:4; <050508>
Deuteronomy 5:8). According to <184132>
Job 41:32 tehom is the home of the leviathan in which he plows his hoary path of foam. The Septuagint never uses abussos as a rendering of
lwOav]
[sheol] (= Sheol = Hades) and probably tehom never meant the “abode of the dead” which was the ordinary meaning of Sheol. In <197120>Psalm 71:20 [tehom] is used figuratively, and denotes “many and sore troubles” through which the psalmist has passed (compare <320205>
Jonah 2:5). But in the New Testament the word abussos
means the “abode of demons.” In <420831>
Luke 8:31 the King James Version renders “into the deep” (Weymouth and The Twentieth Century New Testament = “into the bottomless pit”). The demons do not wish to be sent to their place of punishment before their destined time. Mark simply says “out of the country” (5:10). In <451007>
Romans 10:7 the word is
equivalent to Hades, the abode of the dead. In Revelation (where the King James Version renders invariably “the bottomless pit”) abussos denotes the abode of evil spirits, but not the place of final punishment; it is therefore to be distinguished from the “lake of fire and brimstone” where the beast and the false prophet are, and into which the Devil is to be finally cast (<661920>
Revelation 19:20; 20:10).
See also ASTRONOMY, III, 7.
Thomas Lewis
ABYSSINIA
<ab-i-sin’-i-a>.
See ETHIOPIA.
ACACIA
<a-ka’-sha> (
hF;vi
[shiTTah], the shittah tree of the King James Version, <234119>Isaiah 41:19, and
hF;viAyxe[}
[`atse-shiTTah], acacia wood;shittah wood the King James Version, <022505>
Exodus 25:5,10,13; 26:15,26;
27:1,6; <051003>
Deuteronomy 10:3.): [ShiTTah] (= shinTah) is equivalent to the Arabic sant which is now the name of the Acacia Nilotica (NO,
Leguminosae), but no doubt the name once included other species of desert acacias. If one particular species is indicated in the Old Testament it is probably the Acacia Seyal — the Arabic Seyyal — which yields the well- known gum-arabic This tree, which has finely leaves ular flowers, grows to a height of twenty feet or more, and its stem may sometimes reach two feet in thickness. The tree often assumes a characteristic umbrella-like form. The wood is close-grained and is not readily attacked by insects. It would be well suited for such purposes as described, the construction of the ark of the covenant, the altar and boarding of the tabernacle. Even
today these trees survive in considerable numbers around `Ain Jidy and in the valleys to the south.
E. W. G. Masterman
ACATAN
<ak’-a-tan>.
See AKATAN (Apocrypha).
ACCABA
<ak’-a-ba>, <ak-a’-ba> (B, [∆Akkaba>, Akkaba]; A, [Gaba>, Gaba]; the King James Version Agaba) = Hagab (<150246>
Ezra 2:46); see also HAGABA (<160748>
Nehemiah 7:48): The descendants of Accaba (temple-servants) returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (1 Esdras 5:30).
ACCAD; ACCADIANS
<ak’-ad>, <ak-a’-di-ans>.
See BABYLONIA.
ACCARON
<ak’-a-ron> ([∆Akkarw>n, Akkaron]): Mentioned in 1 Macc 10:89 the King James Version; a town of the Philistines, known as Ekron (
ˆwOrq][,
[`eqron]) in Old Testament, which King Alexander gave to Jonathan
Maccabeus as a reward for successful military service in western Palestine.
It is also mentioned in the days of the Crusades.
See EKRON.
ACCEPT; ACCEPTABLE; ACCEPTATION
<ak-sept’>, <ak-sep’-ta-b’-l>, <ak-sep-ta’-shun>: “To receive with favor,” “to take pleasure in”; “well-pleasing”; “the act of receiving.”
Accept, used
(1) of sacrifice, “accept thy burnt-sacrifice” (
ˆveD:
[dashen], “accept as fat,” i.e. receive favorably; <192003>Psalm 20:3);
(2) of persons, “Yahweh accept Job” (<184209>
Job 42:9,
ac;n:
[nasa’], “to lift up,” “take,” “receive”);(3) of works, “a the work of his hands” (<053311>
Deuteronomy 33:11
hx;r:
[ratsah], “to delight in”).
In New Testament
(1) of favors, “We accept .... with all thankfulness” ([ajpode>comai, apodechomai], <442403>
Acts 24:3);
(2) of personal appeal, “He accept our exhortation” (<470817>
2 Corinthians 8:17);
(3) of God’s Impartiality ([lamba>nw, lambano], “to take,” “receive”);
“accepteth not man’s person” (<480206>
Galatians 2:6).
Acceptable, used
(1) of justice (
rj”B;
[bachar], “choose select”), “more accept ....than sacrifice” (<202103>
Proverbs 21:3);
(2) of words (
≈p,je
[chephets], “delight in,” “sought .... accept words” (<211210>Ecclesiastes 12:10);
(3) of times (
ˆwOxr:
[ratson], “delight,” “approbation”; [dektov, dektos], “receivable”) “acceptable year of the Lord” (<236102>Isaiah 61:2 (King James Version); <420419>
Luke 4:19);
(4) of spiritual sacrifice ([eujpo>sdektov, euprosdektos], “well received”), “acceptable to God” (<600205>
1 Peter 2:5);
(5) of patient endurance ([ca>riv, charis], “grace,” “favor”) “This is acceptable with God” ( <600220>
1 Peter 2:20).
Acceptation, used twice to indicate the trustworthiness of the gospel of Christ’s saving grace: “worthy of all acceptation.” (<540115>
1 Timothy 1:15;
4:9).
These words are full of the abundant grace of God and are rich in comfort to believers. That which makes man, in word, work and character,
acceptable to God; and renders It possible for God to accept him, his service and sacrifice, is the fullness of the Divine mercy and grace and forgiveness. He “chose us” and made us, as adopted sons, the heirs of His grace “which he freely bestowed on us in the Beloved” (<490106>
Ephesians 1:6;
compare the King James Version).
Dwight M. Pratt
ACCEPTANCE
<ak-sep’-tans>: A rendering of the Hebrew
ˆwOxr:
[retson], “delight,”found only in <236007>
Isaiah 60:7. It pictures God’s delight in His redeemed people in the Messianic era, when their gifts, in joyful and profuse abundance, “shall come up with acceptance on mine altar.” With
“accepted” and other kindred words it implies redeeming grace as the basis of Divine favor. It is the “living, holy sacrifice” that is “acceptable to God”
(<451201>
Romans 12:1; compare <560304>
Titus 3:4-6).
ACCESS
<ak’-ses> ([prosagwgh>, prosagoge], “a leading to or toward,”
“approach”): Thrice used in the New Testament to indicate the acceptable way of approach to God and of admission to His favor. Jesus said, “I am the way” (<431406>
John 14:6). His blood is the “new and living way”
(<581020>
Hebrews 10:20). Only through Him have we “access by faith into this grace wherein we stand” (<450502>
Romans 5:2); “Through him we both have access by one Spirit unto the Father” (<490218>
Ephesians 2:18 the King James Version); “in whom we have .... access in confidence, through our faith in him” (<490312>
Ephesians 3:12).
The goal of redemption is life in God, “unto the Father.” The means of redemption is the cross of Christ, “in whom we have our redemption through his blood” (<490107>
Ephesians 1:7). The agent in redemption is the Holy Spirit, “by one Spirit,” “sealed with the Holy Spirit of promise”
(<490113>
Ephesians 1:13). The human instrumentality, faith. The whole process of approach to, and abiding fellowship with, God is summed up in this brief sentence Access to the Father, through Christ, by the Spirit, by faith.
Dwight M. Pratt ACCO
<ak’-o> (
wOK[“
[`akko]; [∆Akcw<, `Akcho]; [&Akh Ptolemai>`v, Ake Ptolemais]; Modern Arabic `Akka, English Acre; the King James Version Accho): A town on the Syrian coast a few miles north of Carmel, on a small promontory on the north side of a broad bay that lies between it and the modern town of Haifa. This bay furnishes the best anchorage for ships of any on this coast except that of George, at Beirut, and Alexandretta at the extreme north. As the situation commanded the approach from the sea to the rich plateau of Esdraelon and also the coast route from the north, the city was regarded in ancient times of great importance and at various periods of history was the scene of severe struggles for its possession. It fell within the bounds assigned to the Israelites, particularly to the tribe of Asher, but they were never able to take it (<061924>Joshua 19:24-31; <070131>
Judges 1:31). It was, like Tyre and Sidon, too strong for them to attack and it became indeed a fortress of unusual strength, so that it many a siege, often baffling its assailants. In the period of the Crusades it was the most famous stronghold on the coast, and in very early times it was a place of importance and appears in the Tell el-Amarna Letters as a possession of the Egyptian kings. Its governor wrote to his suzerain professing loyalty when the northern towns were falling away (Amos Tab 17 BM, 95 B).
The Egyptian suzerainty over the coast, which was established by
Thothmes III about 1480 BC, was apparently lost in the 14th century, as is indicated in Tell el-Amarna Letters, but was regained under Seti I and his more famous son Rameses II in the 13th, to be again lost in the 12th when the Phoenician towns seem to have established their independence. Sidon however surpassed her sisters in power and exercised a sort of hegemony over the Phoenician towns, at least in the south, and Acco was included in it (Rawl. Phoenica, 407-8). But when Assyria came upon the scene it had to submit to this power, although it revolted whenever Assyria became weak, as appears from the mention of its subjugation by Sennacherib (ib 449), and by Ashurbanipal (ib 458). The latter “quieted” it by a wholesale massacre and then carried into captivity the remaining inhabitants. Upon the downfall of Assyria it passed, together with other Phoenician towns, under the dominion of Babylon and then of Persia, but we have no records
of its annals during that period; but it followed the fortunes of the more important cities, Tyre and Sidon. In the Seleucid period (BC 312-65) the town became of importance in the contests between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. The latter occupied it during the struggles that succeeded the death of Alexander and made it their stronghold on the coast and changed the name to PTOLEMAIS, by which it was known in the Greek and Roman period as we see in the accounts of the Greek and Roman writers and in Josephus, as well as in New Testament (1 Macc 5:22; 10:39; 12:48;
<442107>
Acts 21:7). The old name still continued locally and reasserted itself in later times. The Ptolemies held undisputed possession of the place for about 70 years but it was wrested from them by Antiochus III, of Syria, in 219 BC and went into the permanent possession of the Seleucids after the decisive victory of Antiochus over Scopas in that year, the result of which was the expulsion of the Ptolemies from Syria, Palestine and Phoenicia (Ant., XII, iii, 3). In the dynastic struggles of the Seleucids it fell into the hands of Alexander Bala, who there received the hand of Cleopatra, the daughter of Ptolemy Philometor, as a pledge of alliance between them (ib XIII, iv, 1). Tigranes, king of Armenia, besieged it on his invasion of Syria, but was obliged to relinquish it on the approach of the Romans toward his own dominions (BJ, I, v, 3). Under the Romans Ptolemais became a colony and a metropolis, as is known from coins, and was of importance, as is attested by Strabo. But the events that followed the conquests of the Saracens, leading to the Crusades, brought it into great prominence. It was captured by the Crusaders in 1110 AD, and remained in their hands until 1187, when it was taken from them by Saladin and its fortifications so strengthened as to render it almost impregnable. The importance of this fortress as a key to the Holy Land was considered so great by the
Crusaders that they put forth every effort during two years to recapture it, but all in vain until the arrival of Richard Coeur de Lion and Philip
Augustus with reinforcements, and it was only after the most strenuous efforts on their part that the place fell into their hands, but it cost them 100,000 men. The fortifications were repaired and it was afterward committed to the charge of the knights of John, by whom it was held for 100 years and received the name of Jean d’Acre. It was finally taken by the Saracens in 1291, being the last place held by the Crusaders in Palestine
It declined after this and fell into the hands of the Ottomans under Selim I in 1516, and remained mostly in ruins until the 18th century, when it came into the possession of Jezzar Pasha, who usurped the authority over it and the neighboring district and became practically independent of the Sultan and defied his authority. In 1799 it was attacked by Napoleon but was bravely and successfully defended by the Turks with the help of the English fleet, and Napoleon had to abandon the siege after he had spent two months before it and gained a victory over the Turkish army at Tabor.
It enjoyed a considerable degree of prosperity after this until 1831 when it was besieged by Ibrahim Pasha, of Egypt, and taken, but only after a siege of more than five months in which it suffered the destruction of its walls and many of its buildings. It continued in the hands of the Egyptians until 1840 when it was restored to the Ottomans by the English whose fleet nearly reduced it to ruins in the bombardment. It has recovered somewhat since then and is now a town of some 10,000 inhabitants and the seat of a Mutasarrifiyet, or subdivision of the Vilayet of Beirut. It contains one of the state prisons of the Vilayet, where long-term prisoners are
incarcerated. Its former commerce has been almost wholly lost to the town of Haifa, on the south side of the bay, since the latter has a fairly good roadstead, while Acre has none, and the former being the terminus of the railway which connects with the interior and the Damascus-Mecca line, it has naturally supplanted Acre as a center of trade.
H. Porter
ACCOMMODATION
<a-kom-mo-da’-shun>: