Panicum mertensii P. milleflorum Paspalum notatum P. plicatulum
Rhipidocladum racemiflorum Saccharum spontaneum Setaria paniculifera S. vulpiseta Cyperus giganteus'^
C. rotundus C. simplex
Rhynchospora micrantha Cryosophila warscewiczii Carludovica drudei Ludovia integrifolia Caladium bicolor Diejfenbachia longispatha Dracontium dressleri
Philodendron fragrantissimum P. grandipes
P. inconcinnum P. pterotum P. radiatum P. tripartitum
Rhodospatha moritziana R. wendlandii
Xanthosoma helleborifolium X. nigrum
X. pilosum
Aechmea magdalenae Campelia zanonia Dichorisandra hexandra Eichhomia azurea Zephyranthes tubispatha Heliconia catheta H. irrasa H. latispatha H. pogonantha Costus allenii
C. guianensis var. macrostrobilus C. laevis
Renealmia alpinia R. cemua^
Zingiber officinale Calathea inocephala^
C. insignis C. latifolia C. marantifolia C. micans C. panamensis C. villosa
Ischnosiphon leucophaeus Stromanthe jacquinii Thismia panamensis Brassia caudata Dichaea trulla Encyclia triptera Palmorchis powellii
40 INTRODUCTION 3. Flowers and fruits
Piperaceae Lacistemaceae Ulmaceae Moraceae Urticaceae
Olacaceae Rafflesiaceae Polygonaceae Caryophyllaceae Nymphaeaceae Menispermaceae
Lauraceae Saxifragaceae Leguminosae
Rutaceae Malpighiaceae
Polygalaceae Euphorbiaceae
Anacardiaceae Sapindaceae
Rhamnaceae Vitaceae Elaeocarpaceae Bombacaceae Dilleniaceae
Flacourtiaceae
wet season (cont.) Peperomia mameiana Lozania pittieri
Celtis iguanaeus Trema micrantha Dorstenia contrajerva
Trophis racemosa^
Boehmeria cylindrica Pouzolzia ohliqua
Urera eggersii Heisteria costaricensis^
H. longipes
Apodanthes caseariae Coccoloha coronata C. parimensis Drymaria cordata^
Nymphaea blanda Abuta racemosa
Chondrodendron tomentosum Odontocarya tamoides var.
canescens Phoebe mexicana Hydrangea peruviana Crotalaria vitellina^
Inga hayesii
Leucaena multicapitula Ormosia coccinea var. suhsimplex Pithecellobium barbourianum Pterocarpus officinalis^
P. rohrii
Zanthoxylum panamense Byrsonima spicata Hiraea quapara
Mascagnia hippocrateoides Spachea membranacea' Stigmaphyllon puberum Polygala paniculata Acalypha arvensis
Croton billbergianus^
Drypetes standleyi Margaritaria nobilis Poinsettia heterophylla Sapium caudatum Mosquitoxylum jamaicense Cupania cinerea
C. latifolia PauUinia rugosa Serjania pluvialiflorens Gouania adenophora Cissus microcarpa C. rhombifolia Sloanea zuliinsis Quararibea asterolepis Q. pterocalyx Doliocarpus major D. olivaceus Saurauia laevigata Banara guianensis Casearia arborea
Cactaceae Lecythidaceae Myrtaceae
Melastomataceae
Onagraceae Araliaceae Myrsinaceae Sapotaceae Gentianaceae Asclepiadaceae Boraginaceae Verbenaceae
Solanaceae
Scrophulariaceae Gesneriaceae
Acanthaceae Rubiaceae
Cucurbitaceae Compositae
C. commersoniana Rhipsalis cassytha Gustavia fosteri Eugenia coloradensis Myrcia fosteri M. gatunensis
Psidium anglohondurense Arthrostema alatum Bellucia grossularioides Henriettea succosa Miconia lateriflora M. shattuckii Ludwigia octovalvis Dendropanax arboreus D. stenodontus^
Ardisia bartlettii Parathesis microcalyx^
Pouteria unilocularis P. stipitata
Voyria alba V. tenella
Marsdenia crassipes Cordia panamensis Toumefortia hirsutissima Aegiphila cephalophora A. elata
Vitex cooperi Oestrum latifolium Lycianthes synanthera Solanum asperum S. jamaicense Lindemia Crustacea L. dijfusa
Chrysothemis friedrichsthaliana Diastema raciferum
Nautilocalyx panamensis Herpetacanthus panamensis Alibertia edulis
Amaioua corymbosa Cephaelis discolor Geophila croatii G. repens Hamelia axillaris Palicourea guianensis^
Psychotria acuminata P. brachybotrya P. deflexa P. micrantha P. pubescens P. racemosa Randia formosa Cayaponia glandulosa Fevillea cordifolia Clibadium surinamense Conyza bonariensis Eleutheranthera ruderalis Erechtites hieracifolia var.
cacalioides
Fleischmannia microstemon
4. Flowers and fruits Gramineae
Commelinaceae Piperaceae Leguminosae Simaroubaceae Melastomataceae Convolvulaceae Gesneriaceae Rubiaceae Compositae 5. Flowers dry; fruits
Cydanthaceae Araceae Bromeliaceae Commelinaceae Orchidaceae
Piperaceae Moraceae Chrysobalanaceae Leguminosae
Simaroubaceae Anacardiaceae Sapindaceae
Malvaceae Dilleniaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Wedelia trilohata^
Wuljfia haccata wet-dry
Andropogon glomeratus Brachiaria mutica Cenchrus hrownii Ichnanthus pallens Lasiacis oaxacensis Olyra latifolia Panicum grande Paspalum microstachyum Phragmites australis Polytrias amaura
Schizachyrium microstachyum Callisia ciliata
Peperomia killipi P. obtusifolia Aeschynomene ciliata CUtoria rubiginosa Quassia amara Miconia horealis Schwackaea cupheoides Ipomoea tiliacea Drymonia serrulata^
Borreria densiflora Calea prunifolia
Pseudoelephantopus spicatus dry-wet
Carludovica palmata Anthurium littorale Billhergia macrolepis
Phaeosphaerion persicariifolium Cattleya patinii
Epidendrum radicans lonopsis satyrioides Peperomia cordulata Pourouma guianensis Licania hypoleuca
Cassia undulata' CUtoria javitensis^
Dioclea guianensis^
Enterolobium schomburgkii^
Lonchocarpus velutinus Machaerium kegelii M. milleflorum
Schizolobium parahybum Picramnia latifolia
Simarouba amara var. typica Anacardium excelsum
Cupania rufescens C sylvatica'
Serjania paucidentata Hibiscus bifurcatus Davilla nitida Doliocarpus dentatus D. multiflorus Casearia aculeata
Cactaceae Melastomataceae Myrsinaceae Convolvulaceae Boraginaceae Rubiaceae Cucurbitaceae
C. arguta^
Epiphyllum phyllanthus var.
columbiense Miconia hondurensis M. impetiolaris Stylogyne standleyi Merremia umbellata Cordia alliodora C. lasiocalyx
Macrocnemum glabrescens Uncaria tomentosa Cayaponia granatensis Melothria trilobata 5a. Flowers dry; fruits dry-wet (flowers more than 9 months)
Bombacaceae Pachira aquatica 6. Flowers dry; fruits
Palmae Araceae
Bromeliaceae Orchidaceae Piperaceae Moraceae
Nyctaginaceae Menispermaceae Monimiaceae Lauraceae
Chrysobalanaceae Leguminosae
wet
Rutaceae
Meliaceae Anacardiaceae Sapindaceae Sterculiaceae Theaceae Guttiferae
Bactris coloniata Anthurium clavigerum A. friedrichsthalii A. tetragonum Monstera dilacerata Aechmea pubescens Lockhartia acuta Piper arieianum Artocarpus altilis Brosimum alicastrum Cecropia insignis'' Pisonia aculeata"^
Odontocarya truncata'' Siparuna pauciflora Beilschmiedia pendula Ocotea skutchii Persea americana Hirtella americana^
Acacia melanoceras Bauhinia guianensis Hymenaea courbaril Inga cocleensis I. fagifolia^
I. thibaudiana Pithecellobium dinizii P. macradenium'''^
Citrus aurantifolia C aurantium C. sinensis
Zanthoxylum procerum^
Z. setulosum^
Trichilia verrucosa^
Mangifera indica A llophylus psilospermus
Talisia nervosa Herrania purpurea''
Temstroemia tepezapote Garcinia mangostana Rheedia acuminata'' R. edulis
42 INTRODUCTION 6. Flowers dry; fruits
Flacourtiaceae Passifloraceae Caricaceae Combretaceae Melastomataceae Theophrastaceae Loganiaceae Apocynaceae Convolvulaceae Solanaceae Bignoniaceae Rubiaceae Cucurbitaceae
wet (cont.) Laetia procera Zuelania guidonid''^
Passiflora ambigua P. nitida?'^
Carica cauliflora Comhretum laxum var.
epiphyticum Miconia prasina Jacquinia macrocarpa Strychnos toxifera Malouetia guatemalensis'
Odontadenia puncticulosa Maripa panamensis''^
Cestrum megalophyllum Jacaranda copaia^
Tabehuia rosea Faramea luteovirens^
Gurania coccinea
6a. Flowers dry; fruits wet (flowers more than 9 months) Araceae
Piperaceae Moraceae Passifloraceae Solanaceae Rubiaceae
Anthurium scandens Syngonium podophyllum Piper grande
Cecropia peltata Passiflora coriacea Solanum lanciifolium Psychotria limonensis 1. Flowers dry; fruits wet-dry
Annonaceae Desmopsis panamensis Leguminosae Entada monostachya Sapindaceae Paullinia haileyi Myrtaceae Psidium guajava 8. Flowers dry-wet; fruits wet
Cyperaceae Palmae
Cyclanthaceae Araceae
Bromeliaceae Zingiberaceae Orchidaceae Piperaceae
Cladium jamaicense Bactris barronis B. gasipaes
Geonoma interrupta G. procumbens Asplundia alata
Cyclanthus bipartitus Anthurium ochranthum Homalomena wendlandii Philodendron guttiferum P. inaequilaterum P. nervosum P. panamense
Spathiphyllum phryniifolium Syngonium erythrophyllum Aechmea setigera
A. tillandsioides Costus villosissimus lonopsis utricularioides Stellis crescentiicola Peperomia ebingeri P. glabella Piper aequale
Moraceae
Nyctaginaceae Annonaceae Monimiaceae Lauraceae Leguminosae
Burseraceae Meliaceae Malpighiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Anacardiaceae Celastraceae Staphyleaceae Guttiferae Flacourtiaceae
Passifloraceae Lecythidaceae Myrtaceae Melastomataceae
Myrsinaceae Apocynaceae Boraginaceae Solanaceae Bignoniaceae
P. arboreum P. darienense P. hispidum P. perlasense P. pubistipulum P. reticulatum Castilla elastica Cecropia longipes Coussapoa panamensis Maquira costaricana Guapira standleyanum Annona hayesii A. spraguei
Siparuna guianensis Ocotea cemua Brownea macrophylla
Cynometra bauhiniifolia Inga pauciflora
I. pezizifera I. vera subsp. spuria Lonchocarpus pentaphyllus Ormosia panamensis Pithecellobium rufescens Protium tenuifolium var.
sessiliflorum Guarea glabra Trichilia montana Byrsonima crassifolia Acalypha diversifolia Alchomea costaricensis Jatropha curcas (rarely also
bimodal) Omphalea diandra Spondias mombin S. radlkoferi Maytenus schippii
Turpinia occidentalis subsp.
breviflora Tovomita longifolia Laetia thamnia
Tetrathylacium johansenii Xylosma chloranthum Passiflora wilUamsii
Gustavia superba Eugenia nesiotica Clidemia collina C. purpureo-violacea Conostegia bracteata Miconia affinis M. lacera M. lonchophylla M. serrulata
Topobaea praecox Ardisia pellucida Forsteronia peninsularis
F. viridescens Cordia bicolor Toumefortia maculata Lycianthes maxonii Cydista heterophylla
Rubiaceae Alseis hlackiana Antirrhoea trichantha
Chimarrhis parviflora Faramea occidentalis Hojfmania woodsonii Psychotria carthagenensis P. emetica
P. horizontalis P. pittieri Randia armata 8a. Flowers dry-wet; fruits wet (flowers more than 9 months)
Sterculiaceae Bignoniaceae
Sterculia apetala Pleonotoma variabilis
43
Amaryllidaceae Leguminosae Euphorbiaceae 9. Flowers dry-wet;
Palmae Iridaceae Orchidaceae Leguminosae
Burseraceae Malpighiaceae Euphorbiaceae Flacourtiaceae Ljrthraceae Apocynaceae Rubiaceae
Crinum erubescens Andira inermis Inga quatemata Phyllanthus acuminatus fruits wet-dry
Bactris major Neomarica gracilis
Campylocentrum micranthum Myroxylon halsamum var.
pereirae
Platymiscium pinnatum Bursera simaruha Bunchosia comifolia Hura crepitans Casearia corymhosa A denaria floribunda Prestonia ohovata Psychotria furcata 10. Flowers dry-wet; fruits dry
Bromeliaceae Guzmania monostachya Tillandsia monadelpha Orchidaceae Epidendrum dijforme Annonaceae Xylopia frutescens Leguminosae Dalbergia retusa
Platypodium elegans Swartzia panamensis Tachigalia versicolor Euphorbiaceae Garcia nutans
Apocynaceae Odontadenia macrantha Bignoniaceae Arrabidaea chica
Ceratophytum tetragonolobum Macfadyena unguis-cati Xylophragma seemannianum 10a. Flowers dry-wet; fruits dry (flowers more than 9 months)
Apocynaceae Prestonia portobellensis 11. Flowers dry; fruits dry 1 year later
12. Flowers dry-wet; fruits dry-wet 1 year later Scheelea zonensis Annona muricata Inga spectabilis
Tonteha richardii Lacmellea panamensis
Tabemaemontana arborea Tocoyena pittieri
wet-dry
Geonoma cuneata Diejfen bachia pittieri
Guzmania lingulata var. minor Xiphidium caeruleum
Costus pulverulentus C. scaber
Ischnosiphon pruinosus Catasetum bicolor Habenaria alata Peperomia ciliolibractea Sorocea affinis Annona acuminata Erythrina costaricensis var.
panamensis Swartzia simplex var.
grandiflora
Tetrapteris macrocarpa Trigonia floribunda Tovomita stylosa Vismia macrophylla Casearia sylvestris Strychnos panamensis^
Ipomoea phillomega Aegiphila panamensis Mendoncia littoralis Coussarea curvigemmia Isertia haenkeana Pentagonia macrophylla^
Psychotria granadensis P. uliginosa
Warscewiczia coccinea^
13a. Flowers wet; fruits wet-dry (flowers more than 9 months)
Piperaceae Piper marginatum 14. Flowers wet; fruits wet 1 year later
Araceae Philodendron hederaceum Leguminosae Dioclea wilsonii
Sapotaceae Pouteria sapota Palmae
Annonaceae Leguminosae Hippocrateaceae Apocynaceae Rubiaceae
13. Flowers wet; fruits Palmae
Araceae Bromeliaceae Haemodoraceae Zingiberaceae Marantaceae Orchidaceae Piperaceae Moraceae Annonaceae Leguminosae
Malpighiaceae Trigoniaceae Guttiferae Flacourtiaceae Loganiaceae Convolvulaceae Verbenaceae Acanthaceae Rubiaceae
Bromeliaceae Vriesia gladioliflora 15. Flowers wet;
Annonaceae Annona glabra Palmae
Leguminosae Enterolobium cyclocarpum Araceae Hippocrateaceae Hylenaea praecelsa
Prionostemma aspera BromeUaceae
Socratea durissima Dieffenbachia oerstedii Philodendron sagittifolium Catopsis sessiliflora
44
INTRODUCTION 15. Flowers wet; fruitsDioscoreaceae Orchidaceae
Aristolochiaceae Connaraceae Leguminosae
Rutaceae Burseraceae Meliaceae
Malpighiaceae Sapindaceae Tiliaceae Malvaceae Sterculiaceae Dilleniaceae Guttiferae Flacourtiaceae L5T:hraceae Lecythidaceae Combretaceae Araliaceae Sapotaceae Gentianaceae Apocynaceae
Asclepiadaceae
dry (cont.) Tillandsia anceps Vriesia heliconioides V. ringens
V. sanguinolenta Dioscorea sapindoides D. urophylla
Catasetum viridiflavum Dimerandra emarginata Epidendrum rigidum E. sculptum E. strobiliferum Liparis elata Maxillaria neglecta Peristeria elata Polystachya foliosa Sohralia fragrans S. suaveolens
Trichopilia maculata T. subulata
Aristolochia gigantea Cnestidium rufescens Acacia glomerosa A. hayesii A. riparia
Adenopodia polystachya Bauhinia reflexa Dipteryx panamensis Inga punctata
Machaerium arhoreum'- M. seemannii
Peltogyne purpurea Zanthoxylum helizense
Trattinnickia aspera Cedrela odorata
Trichilia hirta Tetrapteris seemannii Paullinia glomerulosa P. pinnata
Apeiba membranacea Corchorus siliquosus Hampea appendiculata var.
longicalyx Byttneria aculeata
Tetracera volubilis Mammea americana Lindackeria laurina Lafoensia punicifolia Couratari panamensis Combretum laxum var. laxum Didymopanax morototoni Chrysophyllum cainito Chelonanthus alatus Aspidospemia cruenta A. megalocarpon Prestonia ipomiifolia Blepharodon mucronatum Matalea pinquifolia M. trianae
M. viridiflora
Bignoniaceae Adenocalymma arthropetiolatum Arrabidaea florida
A. patellifera A. verrucosa
Pithecoctenium crucigerum Tynnanthus croatianus Gesneriaceae Kohleria tubiflora Rubiaceae Cosmibuena skinneri
Coutarea hexafidra
15a. Flowers wet; fruits dry (flowers more than 9 months) Orchidaceae Maxillaria crassifolia
Leguminosae Swartzia simplex var. ochnacea Tiliaceae Apeiba tibourbou
Malvaceae Sida acuta Begoniaceae Begonia filipes
Bignoniaceae Anemopaegma chrysoleucum Callichlamys latifolia 16. Flowers wet; fruits dry-wet
Palmae Astrocaryum standleyanum Desmoncus isthmius Elaeis oleifera Liliaceae Cordyline fruticosa Annonaceae Xylopia macrantha Burseraceae Tetragastris panamensis Meliaceae Guarea multiflora Euphorbiaceae Dalechampia dioscoreifolia Guttiferae Calophyllum longifolium
Tovomitopsis nicaraguensis 16a. Flowers wet; fruits dry-wet (flowers more than 9 months)
Piperaceae Piper villiramulum Bignoniaceae Martinella obovata 17. Flowers wet-dry;
Gramineae Orchidaceae
Leguminosae
Malpighiaceae Euphorbiaceae Sapindaceae
Rhamnaceae Tiliaceae Ochnaceae Passifloraceae Begoniaceae Combretaceae
fruits dry
Lasiacis sorghoidea Eulophia alta Maxillaria powellii M. uncata
Desmodium cajanifolium Inga mucuna
Machaerium microphyllum Mucuna mutisiana Banisteriopsis comifolia Hiraea grandifolia Dalechampia tiliifolia^
Paullinia fibrigera P. turbacensis Serjania rhombea^
Gouania lupuloides^
Trichospermum mexicanum Cespedezia macrophylla Ouratea lucens Passiflora seemannii Begonia guaduensis
Combretum fruticosum
Apocynaceae Prestonia acutifolia Bignoniaceae Amphilophium paniculatum
Arrabidaea candicans Acanthaceae Justicia graciliflora
Rubiaceae Calycophyllum candidissimum Pogonopus speciosus
17a. Flowers wet-dry; fruits dry (flowers more than 9 months)
Commelinaceae Euphorbiaceae Apocynaceae Boraginaceae 18. Flowers wet-dry;
Cyperaceae Dioscoreaceae Piperaceae Moraceae Aristolochiaceae Myristicaceae Lauraceae Leguminosae
Anacardiaceae Bixaceae Passifloraceae Boraginaceae Cucurbitaceae
Gihasis geniculata Mabea occidentalis Mesechites trifida Cordia spinescens fruits dry-wet
Hypolytrum schraderianum Rhynchospora cephalotes Dioscorea macrostachya
(possibly bimodal) Piper carrilloanum P. imperiale
Perehea xanthochyma Aristolochia chapmaniana
Virola surinamensis Nectandra globosa Canavalia dictyota Dalbergia monetaria Erythrina fusca Anacardium occidentale Bixa orellana
Passiflora auriculata Toumefortia angustiflora Cayaponia racemosa 18a. Flowers wet-dry; fruits dry-wet (flowers more than 9 months)
Bombacaceae Ochroma pyramidale Bignoniaceae Pachyptera kerere 19. Flowers wet-dry; fruits wet
20.
Palmae Chamaedorea wendlandiana Piperaceae Piper cordulatum
Polygonaceae Coccoloba manzanillensis Leguminosae Dioclea reflexa
Inga goldmanii I. multijuga I. sapindoides I. umbellifera Rubiaceae Psychotria marginata
Flowers and fruits bimodally
Gnetaceae Gnetum leyboldii var.
woodsonianum
Palmae Oenocarpus panamanus
Synechanthus warscewiczianus
Araceae Momtera dubia
Olacaceae Heisteria concinna Myristicaceae Virola sebifera
Lauraceae Nectandra purpurascens
Capparidaceae Connaraceae
Leguminosae Erythroxylaceae Burseraceae Meliaceae Vochysiaceae Polygalaceae Euphorbiaceae Hippocrateaceae Sterculiaceae Dilleniaceae Guttiferae Araliaceae Sapotaceae Solanaceae
Rubiaceae
Capparis frondosa Connarus panamensis C. turczaninowii Rourea glabra Inga marginata Prioria copaifera
Erythroxylum multiflorum E. panamense
Protium costaricense P. panamense Trichilia cipo Vochysia ferruginea Securidaca tenuifolia Acalypha macrostachya Hyeronima laxiflora Anthodon panamense
Guazuma ulmifolia Tetracera hydrophila Vismia baccifera V. billbergiana Oreopanax capitatus Cynodendron panamense Cestrum noctumum Solanum arboreum S. argenteum S. umbellatum Cephaelis ipecacuanha Guettarda foliacea Psychotria psychotriifolia
45
21. Flowers and fruits all year, no peak Gramineae
Cyperaceae
Araceae
Acroceras oryzoides Andropogon leucostachyus Bothriochloa intermedia Chloris radiata Cynodon dactylon Hyparrhenia rufa Isachne polygonoides Oryza latifolia Panicum trichoides Paspalidium geminatum Pharus latifolius P. parvifoUus
Schizachyrium brevifolium Streptochaeta spicata Cyperus brevifolius C. diffusus C. luzulae C. odoratus C. sesquiflorus C. tenuis
Eleocharis carihaea E. plicarhachis Fuirena umbellata Rhynchospora nervosa Scleria pterota S. secans
Anthurium brownii A. gracile
46
INTRODUCTION 21. Flowers and fruitsCommelinaceae Pontederiaceae Smilacaceae
Musaceae Orchidaceae
Piperaceae Moraceae
Urticaceae Loranthaceae
Polygonaceae
Amaranthaceae Phytolaccaceae Portulacaceae Menispermaceae Annonaceae Capparidaceae Leguminosae
Malpighiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Hippocrateaceae Vitaceae Elaeocarpaceae Malvaceae
Guttiferae Turneraceae
all year, no peak (cont.) Montrichardia arborescens Philodendron scandens Commelina erecta Pontederia rotundifolia Smilax mollis
S. panamensis S. spinosa S. spissa Heliconia mariae Ornithocephalus powellii Pleurothallis brighamii P. grohyi
Scaphyglottis longicaulis Triphora gentianoides Pothomorphe peltata Cecropia obtusifolia Ficus (all species) Olmedia aspera Pilea microphylla Oryctanthus alveolatus O. cordifolius
O. occidentalis
Phoradendron quadrangule Phthirusa pyrifolia Coccoloba acuminata Polygonum acuminatum P. hydropiperoides P. punctatum
Gomphrena decumbens Phytolacca rivinoides Portulaca oleracea
Cissampelos pareira C. tropaeolifolia Guatteria amplifolia G. dumetorum Cleome parviflora Aeschynomene sensitiva
Crotalaria retusa Desmodium axillare var.
acutifolium D. canum D. distortum D. tortuosum
Stigmaphyllon ellipticum S. lindenianum
Chamaesyce hirta C. hypericifolia C. hyssopifolia
Dahchampia cissifolia subsp.
panamensis Phyllanthus urinaria Hippocratea volubilis Cissus sicyoides Muntingia calabura Hibiscus rosa-sinensis H. sororius
Sida rhombifolia Clusia odorata Tumera panamensis
Passifloraceae
Caricaceae Begoniaceae Rhizophoraceae Myrtaceae Melastomataceae
Onagraceae Umbelliferae Myrsinaceae Gentianaceae Menyanthaceae Apocynaceae
Asclepiadaceae Convolvulaceae Verbenaceae
Solanaceae
Bignoniaceae Gesneriaceae Rubiaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Compositae
Passiflora bifiora P. foetida var. isthmia P. menispermifolia P. punctata Carica papaya Begonia patula
Cassipourea elliptica Psidium friedrichsthalianum Aciotis levy ana
Adelobotrys adscendens Clidemia capitellata C. dentata
C. ocotona C. septuplinervia Conostegia speciosa C. xalapensis Leandra dichotoma Miconia nervosa Ossaea quinquenervia Tibouchina longifolia Ludwigia decurrens L. helminthorrhiza Hydrocotyle umbellata A rdisia fendleri
Voyria truncata Nymphoides indica Allamanda cathartica
Catharanthus roseus Ervatamia coronaria Mandevilla subsagittata Rhabdadenia hiflora Stemmadenia grandiflora
Thevetia ahouai Asclepias curassavica Sarcostemma clausum Aniseia martinicensis Lantana camara Petrea aspera
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Capsicum annuum Cyphomandra hartwegii Physalis angulata P. pubescens Solanum hayesii S. subinerme Cydista aequinoctalis Spathodea campanulata
Columnea purpurata Cephaelis tomentosa Diodia ocimifolia D. sarmentosa Ixora coccinea Gurania megistantha Momordica charantia Psiguria bignoniacea Baccharis trinervis Chaptalia nutans Eclipta alba Emilia sonchifolia
Hebeclinium macrophyllum
47
22. Flowers and fruits Gramineae
Cyperaceae
Araceae
Commelinaceae Amaryllidaceae Musaceae Marantaceae Orchidaceae Piperaceae Amaranthaceae Nyctaginaceae Phytolaccaceae Chrysobalanaceae Leguminosae
Euphorbiaceae
Vitaceae Malvaceae Guttiferae Myrtaceae Melastomataceae Umbelliferae Loganiaceae
Melampodium divaricatum Tridax procumbens Vemonia cinerea
all year, especially wet season Andropogon bicomis Anthephora hermaphrodita Axonopus compressus Digitaria ciliaris D. horizontalis Eleusine indica Gynerium sagittatum Homokpis aturensis Leersia hexandra Leptochloa virgata Lithachne pauciflora Panicum fasciculatum P. pilosum
Paspalum decumbens P. paniculatum P. repens P. virgatum Rottboellia exaltata Setaria geniculata Cyperus haspan Fimbristylis dichotoma Scleria eggersiana Anthurium acutangulum A. bakeri
Spathiphyllum friedrichsthalii Tripogandra serrulata Hymenocallis pedalis Heliconia vaginalis Calathea lutea Epidendrum anceps Maxillaria alba Piper auritum Altemanthera sessilis Amaranthus viridis Neea amplifolia Petiveria alliacea
Hirtella triandra (flowering 2 or 3 times per year) Desmodium adscendens D. axillare var. stoloniferum Mimosa pigra
Phaseolus peduncularis P. trichocarpus
Pithecellobium hymeneaefolium Vigna vexillata
Chamaesyce thymifolia Croton hirtus
C. panamensis Cissus erosa
Abelmoschus moschatus Symphonia glohulifera Calycolpus warscewiczianus Conostegia cinnamoniea Spananthe paniculata Spigelia anthelmia
Apocynaceae Convolvulaceae Solanaceae
Scrophulariaceae Bignoniaceae Gesneriaceae
Lentibulariaceae Acanthaceae Rubiaceae
Cucurbitaceae Compositae 23. Flowers and fruits
Gramineae Cyperaceae Araceae Musaceae Marantaceae Orchidaceae Piperaceae Amaranthaceae Ph}T:olaccaceae Leguminosae Dilleniaceae Umbelliferae Solanaceae Scrophulariaceae Bignoniaceae Rubiaceae
5. humboldtiana Mandevilla villosa Ipomoea quamodit Cyphomandra allophylla Solatium ochraceo-ferrugineum S. rugosum
Witheringia solanacea Scoparia dulcis
Phryganocydia corymbosa Besleria laxiflora Codonanthe crassifolia C. uleana
Columnea billbergiana Utricularia foliosa Thunbergia erecta Borreria latifolia Chiococca alba Genipa americana Posoqueria latifolia Psychotria brachiata P. capitata
P. chagrensis P. grandis
Spermacoce tenuior Melothria pendula Psiguria warscewiczii Schistocarpha oppositifolia all year, especially dry season
Oplismenus hirtellus Panicum pulchellum Cyperus densicaespitosus Scirpus cubensis
Anthurium bombacifolium Stenospermation angustifolium Heliconia wagneriana Thalia geniculata Maxillaria friedrichsthalii Psygmorchis pusilla Piper dilatatum Altemanthera ficoidea
Cyathula prostrata Rivina humilis Centrosema pubescens Indigofera mucronata Tetracera portobellensis Eryngium foetidum Browallia americana Markea ulei Stemodia verticillata Paragonia pyramidata Borreria ocimoides Oldenlandia corymbosa 24. Flowers and fruits all year, especially wet-dry
Gramineae Hymenachne amplexicaulis Panicum maximum P. trichanthum Sacciolepis striata Orchidaceae Epidendrum noctumum
48
INTRODUCTION24. Flowers and fruits all year, especially wet-dry (com.)
Hahenaria repens Labiatae Hyptis brevipes Compositae Mikania micrantha
Spilanthes alba 25. Flowers and
Gramineae Araceae Musaceae Zingiberaceae Piperaceae Moraceae Leguminosae Vitaceae Solanaceae Rubiaceae
fruits all year, especially dry-wet Paspalum conjugatum Sporobolus indicus Anthu rium flexile Heliconia metallica Dimerocostus strobilaceus Peperomia rotundifolia Poulsenia armata Caesalpinia pulcherrima Vitis tiliifolia
Solarium antillarum Hamelia patens var. glabra 26. Flowers and fruits all year, bimodal peaks
Gramineae Leguminosae Melastomataceae Rubiaceae
Ichnanthus tennis Cassia fru ticosa
Mouriri myrtilloides subsp.
parvifolia Borreria laevis
Sabicea villosa var. adpressa 27. Seasonality incompletely known
Araucariaceae Araucaria excelsa Hydrocharitaceae
Gramineae
Palmae Araceae Bromeliaceae
Smilacaceae Amaryllidaceae Dioscoreaceae Musaceae Orchidaceae
Hydrilla verticillata Limnobium stoloniferum Bambusa amplexifolia B. arundinacea B. glaucescens
Chusquea simplicifiora Digitaria violascens Ichnanthus brevivaginatus Saccharum officinarum Cocos nucifera Pistia stratiotes Syngonium sp.
Ananas comosus Tillandsia bulbosa
T. fasciculata var. convexispica T. fasciculata var. fasciculata T. subulifera
Smilax lanceolata Amaryllis belladonna Dioscorea alata Musa sapientum
Campylocentrum pachyrrhizum Elleanthus longibracteatus EncycUa chacaoensis E. chimborazoensis Epidendrum coronatum E. rousseauae
Notylia albida Scaphyglottis prolifera
Trichocentrum capistratum
Piperaceae
Moraceae Ceratophyllaceae Menispermaceae Annonaceae
Lauraceae Leguminosae
Humiriaceae Rutaceae Malpighiaceae Euphorbiaceae
Sterculiaceae Violaceae Caricaceae Myrtaceae Melastomataceae Onagraceae Araliaceae Sapotaceae Loganiaceae Apocynaceae Convolvulaceae Labiatae Scrophulariaceae Lentibulariaceae Cucurbitaceae
Campanulaceae Compositae
Piper aristolochiifolium P. peracuminatum P. pseudo-garagaranum P. viridicaule
Coussapoa magnifolia Ceratophyllum demersum Abuta panamensis Anaxagorea panamensis
Crematosperma sp.
Unonopsis pittieri Nectandra cissiflora N. savannarum Acacia acanthophylla
Cymbosema roseum Machaerium riparium
Vatairea erythrocarpa Vantanea occidentalis Citrus grandis C. limon Hiraea faginea Codiaeum variegatum Manihot esculenta Sapium aucuparium
Theobroma cacao Rinorea squamata Jacaratia spinosa Eugenia principium E. uniftora
Miconia rufostellulata Ludwigia torulosa Polyscias guilfoylei Pouteria fossicola Strychnos darienensis Forsteronia myriantha Operculina codonantha
Coleus blumei
Mecardonia procumbens Utricularia obtusa Cayaponia denticulata Posadaea sphaerocarpa Sicydium coriaceum Centropogon comutus Clibadium asperum Mikania hookeriana M. tonduzii Pluchea odorata 27a. Flowers known; fruits unknown
Pontederiaceae Dioscoreaceae Orchidaceae
Eichhomia crassipes Dioscorea haenkeana D. polygonoides Coryanthes maculata Epidendrum stangeanum Hahenaria bicomis Lycaste powellii
Masdevallia livingstoneana Maxillaria camaridii Pleurothallis trachychlamys P. verecunda
Sievekingia suavis
49
Proteaceae Aristolochiaceae Nymphaeaceae Lauraceae Chrysobalanaceae Leguminosae
Malpighiaceae Euphorbiaceae Sapindaceae Passifloraceae Cactaceae Lecythidaceae Myrtaceae Ebenaceae Loganiaceae Asclepiadaceae
Convolvulaceae Verbenaceae Solanaceae Bignoniaceae
Sohralia rolfeana Spiranthes lanceolata Triphora mexicana Vanilla fragrans V. pompona Xylobium foveatum Roupala montana Aristolochia pilosa Nymphaea ampla Ocotea oblonga 0. pyramidata Licania platypus Desmodium wydlerianum Inga minutula
1. ruiziana
Ormosia macrocalyx Malpighia romeroana Acalypha •wilkesiana
Talisia princeps Passiflora vitifolia
Epiphyllum phyllanthus var.
rubrocoronatum Grias fendleri Syzygium jambos Diospyros artanthifolia Strychnos brachistantha Cynanchum cubense C. recurvum Pischeria funebris Gonolobus allenii Iseia luxurians
Clerodendrum paniculatum Cestrum racemosum Adenocalymma apurense Clytostoma binatum 27b. Flowers unknown; fruits known
Palmae Bactris coloradonis Ulmaceae Celtis schippii Sapindaceae Paullinia pterocarpa Rubiaceae Chomelia psilocarpa 28. Flowers dry; fruits all year
Gramineae Streptochaeta sodiroana 29. Flowers dry-wet; fruits all year
Bignoniaceae Stizophyllum riparium History of Panama and the Canal Zone
The Spanish first came to Panama in 1501, and the first settlements were established in 1508, at Santa Maria la Antigua de Darien and at Nombre de Dios. During the succeeding decades, the Spanish completed their conquest of the region. In 1718 Panama became part of the vice- royalty of New Granada (Colombia), and the isthmus soon became the principal route for all traffic to and from Peru and environs. Nonetheless, little development took place outside a narrow belt along both coasts in the region of the isthmus.
In 1821 Panama declared independence from Spain
and began an unstable alliance with Colombia. Following numerous revolutionary outbreaks, Panama finally split with Colombia in 1903 when the Colombian legislature failed to ratify a treaty with the United States to build a canal across the isthmus. In the same year the United States obtained the Canal Zone through a treaty with Panama and commenced construction of the Panama Canal in 1907. The Canal was finished and in operation by 1914. The opening of the Canal greatly affected the region of the isthmus, and the city of Panama soon be- came a major trading and banking center. Much of the region has at times been almost completely deforested, and for a time the Canal Zone administration leased its land and encouraged settlement and farming. Later policy dictated that no new land be leased, and that all existing leases be terminated upon the death of the original lessee.
Since then much of the Canal Zone has become refor- ested, but a number of the original lessees are still living on the land•or their descendents, in any case, have not been evicted. Still other, obviously clandestine, agricul- tural operations are under way in remote parts of the Canal Zone, especially in the area around Frijoles. The best forest in the Canal Zone besides that on BCI is in Madden Forest (now a reserve) and along the northeast side of the Canal bordering the naval oil pipeline that crosses the isthmus.
Although BCI was created in 1914 by the rising waters of Gatun Lake, no attempt to preserve its forest was made until it was set aside as a permanent reservation by the governor of the Canal Zone on April 17, 1923. Establish- ment of the preserve was brought about largely through the efforts of Thomas Barbour and James Zetek. The preserve was first operated by the Institute for Tropical Research, and later came under the direction of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, which still manages it.
History of Botanical Studies
Panama and the Canal Zone. The earliest botanical collections in Panama were made about 1700 by James Wallace, who was associated with the old Scottish settle-
ment of New Caledonia, and though they are still extant in London they have not been carefully studied to this day. Serious botanical activity began in Panama about 1825, when J. E. Billberg collected near Portobelo in Colon Province. Other nineteenth-century collectors include B. C. Seemann (1846-49), P. D. Duchassaing (1849-51), A. Fendler (1850), K. Halsted (1850), and Sutton Hayes (1860-63). Early twentieth-century collec- tors of note in Panama were R. S. Williams (1908), C. W.
Powell (1907-27), H. F. Pittier (1911, 1914-15), W. R.
Maxon (1911, 1923), E. P. Killip (1917-18,1922), C. V.
Piper (1923), P. C. Standley (1923-25), G. P. Cooper (1927-28), A. M. Chickering (1928), Brother Paul (1934), M. E. Spence Davidson (later Mrs. R. A. Terry; 1938, mainly from Chiriqui), and M. E. Terry and R. A. Terry from Darien (late 1930's).
Until 1930 the collectors who came to Panama visited only a relatively small portion of the country and, with the notable exception of Henri Pittier, most collected in