NOTES

ultimate determination of the costs and benefits of management by corporate culture.

10. For a particularly informative survey of the thinking on motivation, see the chapter titled ‘‘A Sociohistorical Analysis of the Literature on Rewards and Intrinsic Motivation’’ (Cameron & Pierce, 2002, pp. 177–197).

11. Garvin (1993) elaborates: ‘‘Learning organizations are skilled at five main activities: systematic problem solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from their own experience and past history, learning from the experiences and best practices of others, and transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization’’ (p. 81).

12. With reference to business and management literature, William Starbuck (2003)finds that ‘‘The general norm throughout the first half of the century was that authors said nothing about their sources of data, and this pattern continued into the late 1940s’’ (p. 172).

13. In fact, according toStarbuck (2003), decision-making in general ‘‘remained a marginal theme in organization theory until the late 1950s’’ (p. 161). He attributes to Chester Barnard (1938) the introduction of the ideas that ‘‘decision-making is an important activity performed by executives and that organizations influence executives’ decisions’’ (p. 170).

14. Yet, Charles Heckscher (1994)refers to studies that identify the ‘‘successful failure’’ phenomenon, whereby the team ‘‘that appears to fulfill all criteria of accomplishment, from production to employee satisfaction, yet vanishes for undefined reasons after a few years’’ (p. 46).

15. ‘‘Once a decision has been reached by consensus, there are strong motivational forces, developed within each individual as a result of his membership in the group and his relationship to the other members, to be guided by that decision. In this sense, the group has goals and values and makes decisions. It has properties which may not be present, as such, in any one individual. A group may be divided in opinion, for example, although this may not be true of any one individual’’ (Likert, 1961, pp. 163–164).

16. JeffreyPfeffer (1997)provides a concise analysis of the literature on culture as a social control mechanism (pp. 122–126).

17. I am not aware of any studies of this situation, although it is implied by others, most clearly by bothKunda (1992)andSennett (1998). It may be thought that what goes on beneath the surface has no appreciable effect on organizational results, and therefore is not worthy of attention.

18. Elsewhere (Osburn, 2005), I have suggested community liaison strategies that, in the long term, could be of help in modifying this situation.

19. Chris Aryris was early to study personality and psychological energy in the organization, especially in his chapter on ‘‘The Human Personality.’’ This work may be the first book in English to summarize behavioral research in organizations (Argyris, 1957, pp. 20–53).

20. An approach to development of the culture called ‘‘positive psychology’’

(thinking and, consequently, behaving positively and optimistically) is described for the library setting by Brian Quinn. The building of ‘‘emotional intelligence,’’ which essentially is the ability to relate well to others and, therefore, is arguably more germane to the corporate culture than to the bureaucratic culture, also is addressed in his essay (Quinn, 2005). For a more general exposition of positive psychology as a developing theory of organizational behavior see FredLuthans (2002)orKeyes and Haidt (2003).

21. This is the name given to the reported experience in the Hawthorne Plant of the Western Electric Company in Cicero, Illinois, primarily during 1927–1932. The research became influential to the point of legend, and, among other conclusions, demonstrated that almost any special attention paid to workers by administration can result in improved production (Franke & Kaul, 1978).

22. The priority assigned to cultural fit in the organization does not interfere with diversity of membership. It does not relate to race, gender, age, nationality, physical condition, or religion, but rather directly to how the work is to be accomplished.

23. It is difficult to avoid being a bit concerned by the assertion that, in the managed culture, ‘‘Value statements have replaced codes of ethics’’ (Hoivik, 2002, p. 9).

24. ‘‘Few organizations can be characterized as having a high level of trust between employees and managers; consequently, it is easy for misunderstandings to develop when change is introduced’’ (Kotter, 1999, p. 34).

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