The shift in thinking represented by the Dreyfus model requires us to accept the notion that the reference environment is complex, that the context of each situation is unique and new, and that skill develops across performance
mode and perceptual acuity through both situations and in relationships.
We need to consider all of these factors together in order to come up with a complete picture of skill. This is a new, integrated perspective – although the findings here are consonant with fragmented body of research on reference, which has touched, tantalizingly, on many of the discrete aspects of skill described by the Dreyfus model.
Richardson’s review (1992) identified three separate dimensions for the teaching and learning of reference work: the format of the information, the method of clarification, and the mental traits of both librarian and client.
I pointed out earlier that this fragmented view of reference has been perpetuated by the positivist, rational-technical perspectives on work, which have in turn been reinforced by many other factors. The notion of information-as-commodity has influenced library communities to be concerned with efficiency and thus with quantifying distinct elements in the reference environment, such as numbers of questions, question types, clients, and resource usage. The threat of the Internet undermining the need for reference workers (and the libraries that employ them) drew attention to the need to improve librarians’ technical skills and increase customer satisfaction.
Professional Competencies for Reference and User Services Librarians (RUSA Task Force, 2003) does an excellent job of enumerating the detailed tasks and functions of reference work within five practice domains (Access, Knowledge Base, Collaboration, Marketing, and Evaluation). The docu- ment states that it is to be used to identify ‘‘the underlying behaviors that lead to successful performancey. and plans of action that excellent performers typically employ to achieve competency goals.’’ When we examine the competencies through the lens of the Dreyfus model, however, it becomes apparent that the strategies outlined in the RUSACompetencies actually foster performance at varying skill levels, depending on the task.
The following examples will illustrate.
The Competencies document suggests that decision making in reference work occurs systematically in response to the question asked. The examples in the narratives have demonstrated that for experts, decision making is rapid and intuitive. It is at the competent level that practitioners feel compelled to systematically arrange what they know in order to perform more quickly, and to approach their work in a specifically analytical, goal-oriented way.
The RUSA Competencies also separate action from outcome: the librarian must first determine the context and question, and then recommend sources. This correspondence view of the way rules are applied to practice is problematic because in reality, rules never quite match up
exactly with situations, and one can never account for every possible variation. Each situation is truly unique. While it is sufficient for beginners to look to the rules for the right approach to solving the problem, it is not adequate for competent, proficient, or expert performance. The Compe- tencies state in several places that librarians should use the Guidelines for Behavioral Performance of Reference and Information Services (RUSA, 2004) when providing reference services. This will be useful for the beginner, but should be fully mastered by the competent stage.
As the librarian becomes more experienced, her abilities shift as she becomes able to accomplish more of the activities in theCompetencies. In the Access domain, consider the following strategies for achieving the RUSA-stated goal of responsiveness. The Competencies state that this goal can be achieved in part when the librarian determines the situational context of user needs, and analyzes and recommends information sources. As the evidence in this study indicates, the ability of the librarian to perceive and assess situational aspects – including client characteristics, information needs, and information resource and process aspects – changes as the librarian gains experience. The expert not only rapidly perceives situational aspects, but intuitively knows which are relevant and which can be ignored. The most appropriate solution presents itself unconsciously and intuitively. The beginner would be able to recognize aspects if they had been taught or experienced; competent practitioners would recognize more situations. At the proficient level, the librarian is able to perceive and sort out contextual information quickly, but still falls back on systematic analysis for decision making.
In another section of theCompetencies, librarians are required to ‘‘engage users in discussions about their experience related to their information needs and communicate interest in every user’s experience.’’ Librarians in this study at the competent level were able to rapidly identify resources they believe will meet the client’s needs. However, it is not until the proficient stage that librarians demonstrated their affinity for interacting with the client and discerning these more subtle factors.
Another RUSA strategy directs librarians to design and develop information tools and resources, such as bibliographies, displays, tutorials, and so on, to meet the needs of the primary community. These strategies generalize clients, without discriminating between differences within groups, across situations, or other contextual elements. This type of direction is sufficient for competent performers who are keen to organize work this way, but it is not an exemplar of expert performance.
These are just a few examples of the mixed presentation of skill in the Competencies. A summary of skill development represented in the
Competencies follows in Table 3. The appendix provides a detailed breakdown of each of the goals and associated strategies in theCompetencies by Dreyfus skill level, based on the evidence provided in the narratives.