CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
F. The Concept of Degrees of Comparison
21
f. Use of action verbs 'material processes', for example, it eats grass, it runs fast.
g. Use of adverbials phrase to give additional information about the characteristic of the subject. An adverbial phrase is a phrase with preposition as the head, which is that followed by another phrase, showing place, time, purpose, etc. For example: fast at tree house h. Use of figurative Language, for example: John is as white as chalk.19
Here is example of descriptive text My Favorite Cafe
My favorite cafe to relax is a small cafe down the street from where I live. This cafe is on the small side street and as soon as you see it, you feel like going in. There are three windows on either side of the door, and each window has a small table all around the room. Even though it is not a big place, it is size make it cozy and comfortable. I always like to sit at a small table in the corner near the front windows. From here, I can look at the artwork on the walls and at the pretty plants hanging from the ceiling. With a strong cup of coffee and a good book, I feel very happy and relaxed in my favorite cafe.
comparison. And there are some definitions about degrees of comparison according to some experts of English language.
1. Definition of Degrees of Comparison
To get the general understanding about degrees of comparison, it is better to describe what comparison is. One of the most basic and powerful of human cognitive process is the ability to comprehend and express the fact that two things are similar or different Often such similarity or difference is expressed in terms of degree, extent, or quantity20. Therefore, comparison is the most important English construction which is used to express similarities or differences of degree or extent.
Degrees of Comparison of an adjective or adverb describes the relational value of one thing with something in another clause of a sentence. An adjective may simply describe a same quality (the positive);
it may compare the quality with that of another of its kind (comparative degree), and it may compare the quality with many or all others (superlative degree).
According to Martin Parrot in Grammar for English Language Teachers, comparatives are adjectives and adverbs that end in -er. (e.g bigger, richer, faster) and superlatives are adjectives adverbs that end in est (eg biggest, richest, fastest)21.
20 Marianne Celce-Murcia and Dianne Larsen-Freeman. The Grammar Book. An ESL /EFL Teacher’s Corse. 2nd ed. (USA; Heinle 7 Heinle Publishers, Inc. 1999).p717
21 Martin Parrot. Grammar for English Language Teachers.(USA: CambridgeU niversity Press. 2000).p68.
23
The degrees of comparison are known as the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. (Actually, only the comparative and superlative show degrees.) We use the comparative for comparing two things and the superlative for comparing three or more things.
Based on the definitions stated above, the writer infers that comparison is a process of comparing people, things, or places through the level of quality, quantity, or relation. It is formed from adjective and adverb. But this study is only focused on comparison in descriptive text.
2. Kinds and the Usage of Degrees of Comparison
There are three kinds of adjective comparison; they are positive, comparative and superlative.
a. Positive
Positive degree is the most basic form of the adjective, positive because it does not relate to any superior or inferior qualities of other things. Positive refers to the quality of one person or thing.
It is simply the adjective form. Positive also used to compare two nouns or verbs that are equal or almost equal (equality)22. On other hand, we can use as + adjective + as for comparing two persons or things that have the similarity of quality or quantity. For example:
1) Meisya is pretty.
2) My mother is as old as my father.
22 Ruth Pierson & Susan Vik. Making Sense in English. (USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. 1987).p.77.
For negative comparison, to talk about two things that is different in some way. we use „not + as + adjective + as‟. For example:
a) Her pencil is not as long as yours.
b. Comparative.
The comparative degree denotes a greater amount of a quality relative to something else. The phrase „Anna is faller than her father‟
means that Anna‟s degree of tallness is greater than her fathe‟'s degree of tallness. RW Zandvoort and J. A. Van Ek said in their book The comparative is used when one object or group is compared with another and separate object or group23. Comparative degree is used to compare two person places or things. Example:
1) Neo is taller than Tirta.
2) Fia is less talkative than Vira
3) This novel is more interesting than that one c. Superlative
Superlative degree is used to stress the highest degree of quality for more than two objects compared. It is the highest or lowest degree of quality when more than two persons or things are
23 R. W. Zandvoort and J.A. Van Ek. A Handbook of English Grammar. (London Longman Group Limited. 1980). 7th edition.p.188.
25
compared. The superlative is used to compare one member of a group with the whole group (including that member)24. For example:
1) Bob is the tallest boy in the chub.
2) These bags are the most expensive of all.
G. Error Analysis
1. Definition of Error Analysis
The fact that "learners do make errors and that these errors can be observed, analyzed, and classified to reveal something of the system operating within the learner, led to a surge of study of learners‟ errors, called error analysis”.25
Another concept of error analysis is given by Richards. He states
“that error analysis is the study of errors made by the second and foreign language learners”. Error analysis may be carried out in order to find out how well someone knows a language, find out how a person learns a language, and obtain information on common difficulties in language learning, as an aid in teaching or in the preparation of teaching materials”.26
Moreover, Brown said “that error analysis as the process to observe, analyze, and classify the deviations of the rules of the second language and then to reveal the systems operated by learner”.27 It seems this concept is the same by Crystal, "he defined error analysis is a
24 Michael Swan. Practical English Usage. (Oxford: Oxford University Press.
1980).p.144.
25Brown, 206
26 Jack C. Richards. Error Analysis. (London: Longman, 1973).p.172
27 Ibid.
technique for identifying, classifying and systematically interpreting the unacceptable forms produced by someone learning a foreign language, using any of the principles and procedures provided by linguistics”.28
From the definitions above, the writer concludes "that error analysis is the study of learners‟ error to obtain information on common difficulties faced by someone in speaking or writing English sentences”.
Another thing, which should be noticed, is the procedure of error analysis.
2. The Definition of Error and Mistake
An error is different from mistakes, in the process of teaching and learning is very reasonable if students make mistakes. As teachers can not expect students to learn something perfect for the first time. Student errors are part of the learning process that must be addressed wisely. It is essential here to make a distinction between mistakes and errors. Two things need to be stated here: Firstly, mistakes do not require special treatment assuming they are recognized. Secondly, error here refers to structures only. According to Bartram and Walton state that mistake is wrong language which a native speaker would not ususally produce, that is something that only learners of the language produce.
Error and mistake are two different words that are actually synonyms of each other. They also mean the same thing, something that
28 Ibid.
27
is done incorrectly or is wrong. This could be due to bad judgment, inattention or may due to lack of focus. The main difference between the two is the context that they are used in. Mistake 'refers to student errors based on false allegations or failure to use certain known systems. while 'Error' refers to students' mistakes in terms of understanding.
From those definition above, the writer concludes that a mistake is just a slip that the learner forgets the right form. While, an error is a deviation which is made by the learner because he does not know the rule and he/she will make it repetitively. Further, Crystal states in language teaching and learning, error analysis is teachique for identifying, classifying and systematically interpeting the mistakes made by someone learning a foreign language, using any of the principles and procedures provided by linguistics.
Therefore, the teachers must try their best to avoid the errors made by the students without discouraging them. In addition, knowledge of sources of the errors will help the teacher to find the sources of the errors.
The teacher also need to provide the effective correction related to their errors in order to enable the students to construct the sentences with appropriate language form.
There are some common mistake made by language learners that is in error, the error refers to the error performance, in which language learners are aware system but fail to use it, also falsely interpreted as
forms of speech that are not correct grammar, while errors are the result of the competence of systematic someone (a learning system that is not appropriate)
3. The Distinction between Error and Mistake
Error and mistake are not the same thing. But most the people still misunderstand about the definition of both. To be more clarified between error and mistake. Julian Edge suggests that mistake can be devided into two broad categories: “slips (that is mistakes which students can correct themselves and which therefore need explanation), and attempts (that is when a student tries to say something but does not yet know the correct way to saying it).” Hubbard et al as cited in Santi Novianti, said “error caused by lack of knowledge about the target language (English) or by incorrect hypothesis about it, and mistakes caused by temporary lapses or memory, confusion, slips, of the tongue and so on.
”According to Erdogan, in Nurul Fitrah Syam, a learner makes a mistake when writing or speaking because of lack of attention, fatigue, carelessness, or some other aspects of performance. The mistake can be self-corrected when attention is called. In other words, a mistake is a slip that the learner can self-correct whereas an error is what a learner cannot self-correct. From those definitions above, the researcher can also conclude that a mistake is just a slip that the learner forgets the right
29
form. While, an error is a deviation made by the learner because he/she does not know the rule and they do it repetitively.
To distinguish between an error and mistake, Ellis as mentioned by Erdogan also suggest two ways. The first one is to check the consistency of learner‟s writing, if he sometimes uses the correct form and sometimes the wrong one, it is a mistake.
However, if he always uses it incorrectly, it is an error. The second way is to ask the learner to try to correct his own deviant utterance. When he is unable too, the deviations are errors, while he is successful, they are mistake. Indeed, learners often make mistakes in the process of foreign language learning. Thus, it is still not a big deal when the learners commit the mistake either in speaking or writing since they are capable to correct the mistake. However, learning another language becomes difficult since the target language has a different system of the native language. This is why analyzing learner‟s errors in learning another language would be interesting instead of mistake analysis. From explanation above, it can be concluded that error is systematic and the students cannot be self-corrected, because it reflects the student‟s competence in the target language. On the contrary, a mistake is an error that students can be self-corrected, because it is only the result of the students‟ performance.
Based on quotation above, it is clea that errors and mistakes are different. Error are systematic deviation from the target. If the same patterns of the wrong sentences occur regularly in students answer and they do not know the system correctly so they make errors. Moreover, it can conclude of mistake may due to forget fullness or hesitation.
4. The Procedure of Error Analysis
Procedure of error analysis is very necessary and important.
Without procedures, analyze error will not be correct and clear.
Therefore, a learner needs to know about the procedure of error analysis.
So that they know how to write correct. There are some procedures of error analysis which come from some linguistics experts. One of them came from the linguistics experts, he is Ellis. In his book, “Second Language Acquisition”, mentions the procedures of error analysis such as identifying errors, describing errors, explaining errors, and evaluating errors”.29 Where four procedures that was very important and needed in the error analysis. Without of one of the procedure, the analysis will be doing less truth. Because these procedures related to each other, which in the error analysis, usually step that should be done by the writer after identifying error is the writer should be done describe the overall error and should detail, this purposes that the writer know clearly the frequency errors that the students made in using adjective in descriptive text writing, and also know the development of the students in target
29 Rod Ellis. Second Language Acquisition. (Oxford: Oxford University Press,1997).p.
15-20
31
language. After describing the error, the next step is the writer should explaining and evaluating the error, that's all meant that the writer know the types of errors the students make and the source of the reason why the students make error in using adjective in descriptive text writing. And the final step is Evaluating the error, this purposes that the writer can specify what should be emphasized or repaired to test result of the students in using adjective in descriptive text writing. What is clear, the four procedures are very important and needed in error analysis, so the data is valid of truth in the analysis that.
Procedure of error analysis in Ellis book, he classifies into fourth step is identifying the errors, describing errors, explaining or interpreting, and evaluating error.”30 The fourth step procedure of error analysis in Ellis book will be discussed briefly below.
The first step in analyzing learners‟ errors is identifying the errors; which the researcher should compare the sentence that learner produces with what would be the correct sentence in the target language.
If the sentence is assumed wrong in the target language or inappropriate for a particular context, it shows the error.
The next step is describing errors; the identified errors are described and classified into the table description of errors in order to know the frequency of error types. Classifying errors in such ways can
30 Ibid.
help the teacher analyze learners' problems in their target language development.
The third step is explaining or interpreting. It discusses the error types described in the table description and It is going to be more difficult when identifying the causes of error since the errors have a varied causes such as mother tongue interference, overgeneralization, error encouraged by teaching materials or methods.
The last step is evaluating error, which is also necessary. The teacher can determine what should be more emphasized or treated and what should be not to their students.
The fourth step in the above procedure proposed by Ellis is very necessary and important to the teachers in analyzing the errors made by learners in their writing. Because of the absence of the procedures of error analysis, then certainly there will be many errors in the writing of the learners and the teacher does not know. So that, this procedures very necessary and important for the teachers to can know the error made by learners in their writing.
Corder in Brown provides a good model for identifying erroneous or idiosyncratic utterances in second language. The first step is the identification and description of error. According to Corder‟s model, any sentence uttered by the learners and subsequently transcribed can be analyzed for idiosyncrasies. A major distinction is made at the outset between “overt” and “covert” errors. The model indicates that in both
33
cases if a plausible interpretation can be made of the sentence then one should form reconstruction of the sentence in the target language, compare the reconstruction with the original idiosyncratic sentence, and then describe the differences. If the native language of the learners is known, the model indicates using translation as a possible indicator of native language interference as the source of error. In some cases, of course, no plausible interpretation is possible at all, and the researcher is left with analysis of the error.31
However, once an error is identified, the next step is to de ribe it adequately, something the above procedure has only begun to accomplish. A number of different categories for description of errors have been identified in research on learner language32:
a. The most generalized breakdown can be made by identifying errors of addition, omission, substitution, and ordering.
b. Within each category, levels of language can be considered:
phonology or orthography, lexicon, grammar, and discourse.
c. Errors may also be viewed as either global or local (Burt and Kiparsky 1974).
31 H.D. Brown. Principle Learning and Teaching, (New Jersey, Prentice-Hall.
1993).p.208
32 Ibid. p.210
34
CHAPTER III
RESEARCH METHOLOGY
This chapter focuses on the research method that will be performed in the research. There will be the type and characteristic of the research, data collecting techniques, data analysis technique and approach.
A. Type and Characteristic of the Research
Qualitative research is used in this research. Qualitative is an official process to find out the cause of something or find out the information in order to be understood based on the distinct methodological tradition of inquiry that analyze social and human problem. It means that qualitative is a process to figure out the information based on the analyzing in social and human problem in society.
According to Donald Ary, qualitative research focuses on understanding social phenomena and providing rich verbal descriptions of settings, situation, and participant35. Based on the description above, it can be concluded that qualitative research is type research that collects and works with non-numerical data and that interpret meaning from these data.
Based on Gary Anderson, qualitative research is divided into five method, those are: Applied, Case Study, Ethnography, Grounded Theory, and Phenomenology36. The type of this research is case study. According to
35 Donald Ary et. al. Introduction to Research in Education 8th Edition. (Canada:
Wadsworth Cengage Learning. 2010).p39.
36 Gary Anderson. Fundametals of Educational Research. (USA: Falmer Press. 1998) p128