Theoreticel Description

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

B. Theoreticel Description

'I . Argumentative Paragraph

Paragraph

is usually a

series

of

^sentence

^{that develops one}

^topic'1o

^A

paragraph can be as long as short necessa4/

to

develop one

topic.

Every paragraph has

topic,

main idea and

topic

sentence. Paragraph is

"a distinct

section

of

^piece

of

writing,

use consisting

of

several sentences dealing

with

^a single theme."3l

The purpose

of

paragraph is

to

show a change

of

thought or change

oftopic.

For that reason, each paragraph must be

limited

to a single

topic.

The

topic

is most often expressed

in

the

topic

sentence that

is

usually the

first

sentence

of

paragmph.

The other

sentences

in the

paragraph

develop the main

idea

of

paragraph.

Any

sentences

that do not relate to the topic

sentence

should be

removed.

Mus

as sentence

combine to ^{make up} a paragraptL paragaph combines to form

^a

composition. Each paragmph is a

building block in

the structure

of

the composition and such as, must take its specific contribution to the composition.32

'o George E Wishon and M. Burks Julia Let's lfrite Englkh, New York American Book Company, Revised edition, 199E, p. 369

1t Homy, Oxford Advonced Leorner' s Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Prcss, 1995,

p.840

_{_^}

"

Georye E Wishon and M. Burks Julia Let's

hite,

_P. 169

l8

previous studies were: a the mastery of reading

comprehension,

b.

reading comprehension

abilit-v. c. reading ability in identifting analyical and

hortatory exposition text.

t9

The example

of

paragraph as belo\ ^,:

Money has an interesting history. In ancient

times,

people

used goods, food,

animals, or

objects as money. They exchanged these things

for ^othet

^{lhings they}

wanted. The

firsl

^coins,

^{or melal}

^{money, appeared}

ⁱⁿ

^oncient

Lydia. now

modern Turkey,

about

2.600

years ago.

The Romans

first

^made

coins about 2.300

years ago. The Chinese made the

first ^paper

money. However.

paper

money

like

the

kind

in use today started in England about 400 yeors ago.

As we knolr, paragraph are classified into four categories

narrative.

exposition, descriptive, and argumentative, but

for this

case the

writer just

_explain

more clearly about argumentative because

it

is related to the problem

of

the study.

According to Fawcett and Sandberg

in

Sabarun the argumentative paragraph

also called the

persuasive

paragaph. The

purpose

of

persuasive

is to

change someone's

mind. The

persuasive

paragaph

begins

with an

argumentative

poinl,

stated

in a

focused

topic

sentence,

and follows through

evidence

aimed at

the probable _readers

of the

argument.

To write a

persuasive

topic

sentence,

we

must take a position that we plan to persr'"de the readers to agree with. ³³

Pers,rasive paragmph

is

also called argument

writing. In

argument

writing,

an

opinion

is stated and supported correctly.

An opinion

is some body's

view

points about the

topic. In

persuasive

writing

the

writer's

purpose is

to

support an opinion to

win

over to the

writer's

point

of

view. The

following

is persuasive paragraph.

People

who like to

exercise should

think

about

jogging _according to a

recent study.

Jogging

tones muscles

and

makes

the

body use more

orygen, which

is good

for

^a

^person's

^health.

^Jogging

^{is also} inexpensive

form ^of

exercise, since

litlle sport

argument

is

needed.

Finally, it is sport thot,

independents athletes can enjoy. Exercise

fans will

surely appreciate

jogging

"

^{Saba.nrr! Parograph} writing, p.lg

20

Opinion: people who like

lo

exercise

shouldjog.

Supporting

statemenl:

jogging is an

exercise

that leads to good health is it ⁱⁿ

expensive,

it

is independent sporl.

The

tone:

calm and

straight.

This lone helps to persuade lhe reader

lo

lake action

on

jogqing.

^3a

Argument is designed to convince or

persuade

some body to

declare something is true

or

should be done. Its method is

to

make a general statement and support

it or

sometimes

to

lead

logically, to a

general conclusion

by a

series

of

facts.

Argument

depends

for it's

effectiveness

on logical

reasoning and concrete support for stated facts.3s

Based

on the

some statements above argumentative paragraph

is

a

part of

paragraph

which

has the purpose to persuade the reader

to follow with

the

writer's

opinion.

The basic

of

useful argumentation are straight

thinking

and

logical

method

of establishing proof. There are

several

basic

methods

of

reasoning. Inductive reasoning begins

with

the

specific

and moves

to

the general. Deductive reasoning begins

with

the general and moves

to

the specific. Cause and effect reasoning and analyze result

growing out ofa

^given set

of

circumstances,

still

another method

of

argumentation

is to cite the

statement

of

acknowledge authorities

on the

subject under discussion. This might be called argument by authority.

a. Inductive Reason

This

method

of

^reasoning process

to a

general statement

or a

conclusion

fiom specific examples, facts or

^instance

this is the

procedure

known as

the

to lbid, p.20

"

Ceorye E Wishon and M B Burks Julia Let's Write. p- 369

2t

*scientific method.'

The

scientis

performs many experiments and then arrives at a

conclusion

based

on the finding of all

then

arrives at a conclusion

based

on

the

finding of all

experiments

if

_1ou

bul

a pair

of

shoes

from

a

pa(icular

company and

find that

they

hurt

_;-our

feet

and

lhe

same

problem

accure

with

subsequent pairs, you can probably safely.

Concluding that

shoes made

by

that company are

of poor quality

and you should

not by them

anymore. Some

important things to

remember

in

employing inductive reasoning are thal a

sufficient

number

of

cases must be considered that no one proves

or

disproves the conclusion.

Yet

a conclusion may

to follow logically

from a single fact example:

Fact: I

^{ha,e been promoted} by my employer Conclusion: my work has been satisfactory.

b- Deductive Reason

This method

of

reasoning begin

with

the general and moves to specific,

it

is the opposite

of

inductive reasoning. To reason deductively, tbree steps are required:

a major premise and ^a

minor.

Premise and a conclusion for example:

Major

premise: wood will

floot

^{in water} Minor premise: my

pencil

is made of wood

Conclusion: therefore, my

pencil

will

float

^{in u'ater}

Conclusion is logical. It should be

stressed

that the

^promises

must be true

and acceptable in relation to each other.

Based on some statements above the students musl b€ able

to

state the key words

to

comprehend

inductive

and deductive reason and also they have

to

able to

))

differentiate

between general statements and

specific

statements

of

argumentative paragraph.

c. Cause- and-Effect Reasoning

This

method

of

reasoning

tells

^u'hat

is

happened

to

^produce

a resull or it lells *'hat *ill ^{result from}

a cenain situation

or

evenl.

The follo*ing

three points must be considered before using caused and effect reasoning.

1) There

must b€ a suong

and

tnre

connection between the cause and

the

effect

$ated;

2) The cause must be strong enough to produce the

result

3) There must be no

possibility

that some

ofier

cause could have product the same result, examples:

-Eric

failed in English...

^(Fact) He did not study (cause)

-The ground was u)et this morning (fact)

it rained

last night (cause) d. Argument by

Authority

This

method

of reasonhg

uses statement

from expe(s to

support

a line of

reasoning.

Authorities

must be reputable, recognized ^as authorities, and up to date.

The exact words

of

authorities must be enclosed

in

quotation marks

or

set

off from the rest of the next by indention. Authorities should be identified by name. If

detailed facts, mentioned

in a

note at

lhe bonom of

the page

or

at the end

of

the

writing.

Vague references to authorities are not acceptable in formal argument.

ls

Do not

use

terms such as so an. be

sure

the authority....,

everyone

knous....

Authorities

agre"...., ,o

o.r. ^3u

Based on some statements above

it

is clear that the argumentation

or

reason give based on the fact, effect, or the opinion of the

writer it

self.

An

argument is composed at least thrce parts:

a) The

claim

The Claim (also called a preposition)

answer

the

^question

what are

^you

trying to

^prove?

"it

^may appear as thesis statement

of

^you essay, although

in

same argumenls

it

may not be stated

directly,

there are three principles

of claim tlere

are claim

of fac!

value and

policy.

According

to

Rothenberg quoted

by

Furaidah and her friends, claims

of

fact assert that a condition has existed, exists, or

will

exist and are based on facts or data that the audiences

will

accept as being objectively verifiable. For example:

The presenls cocaine epidemic is not unique

from

¹⁸⁸⁵

^to

^{1920, cocaine was a}

widely used

it

is today horse

racing

is the most dongerous sport.

Claims

of

value attempt

to

prove that something

or

more

or

less desirable

then olhers. They exprcss approval or disapproval of

^standards

of ^taste

^and

morality.

Advertisements

and reviews of claims

emerge whenever people argue about what is good or bad

beautifully

or ugly.

*

_{Ibi4 p.}

t +z-ta8

24

Claims

of policy

assert that specific policies should be institute as solutions

to problems. The expression should, mus! or ought to usually

appear

in

the Example:

Prison should be abolished because they are crime manufacturing concerns.

b) The suppon

Support constans of the materials used by the arguer to convince

an audience that his

claim

is sound. These materials include evidence and motivational appeals. The evidence or data consist of facts, statistic, and testimony

from

experts.

The

motivational

appeals are the ones that the arguer makes

to the

values and attitudes

of the

audience

to win

support

for

the

claim the word

motivational paints out that these appeals are the reasons that move an audience to accept a

belief

or adopt a course

of

action.

c) The warrant

The warrant is

an inference

or

an assumption,

a belief or principle that

is taken

for

statement. Guaranteed a warrant is guarantee

of reliability, in

an argument

it

guarantees the soundness

of

the relationship between the support and the

claim. It

allows the reader to make the connection between the support and the claim.

Warrants

or

assumption

underline all the claims we

make,

they may

be stated or unstated,

if

the arguer believes that the audience shares his assumption, he may

feel it

unnecessary

to

express

it, but is

he thinks the audience

is doubtful

and

25

hostile? He may decide to slate the assumption

in

order to emphasize

is

importance or argue

for it's validitv.

ⁱ⁷

Based

on the

some slalements above

to

compose

the

^argument

must

be attended the

point of vie*'

and

give

the assumption

to

other people and

it is

clear

that we have to

anended

*ith the basic of argumentation belore

express our argument-

2. The Characteristic

of

Argumentative Paragraph

There are three characteristics

of figurnentative

paragraph that can be stated as the

following:

a) To explain the

opinion

in order the reader believes

of it.

b) The argumentative paragraph needs the facts to prove such as draw, graphic, etc.

c) To dig up the source of the opinion of the observation, experienced and research.

d) Closure that contain the conclusion

of

paragmph.

In the argumentative paragraph

will

be found:

a) Introductory, to take the caution of reader, to concentrate the

reader's concentration

to

the argumentation

that will

be conducted, and

to

indicate the basic

ofwhy

the argumentation is conducted.

b) The body of argument to prove the truth that will be conducted in

the argumentative paragraph,

this truth

must be analyzed, arranged and conducted

with

observation,

experimen!

the arranger

of

facts and logical opinion.

"

^{Furaidah dkk Advanced-} p-12.2-12.3

).6

c)

Conclusion

or

summary,

to

prove

to

the reader that the

rurh will

be conducted thorough the reasoning

p.oc"sr."

Based on the statement above the paragraph can be stated as

the argumentative paragraph,

if it

consiss

of

the real facts and

opinion to

persuade rhe reader.

3. The

Difficulties in

Reading Argumentative Paragraph.

There

are

some possible

difficulties

faced

by the

students

in

reading the argumentative paragraph. They are:

a)

Identification

of Claim.

The

identification ofthe claim

is espocially important and an analysis

of

the

distribution of errors provides some direction for possible instruction.

First, mistaking _{the theme}

for

the main

claim

suggest that students may need a

definition ofa claim

as a controversial stance not

just

a question or theme. Second, mistaking

a

supported sub-reason

could be

aided

by prompting

_students

to verifu

rhar

this claim does in fact support their-identified higher level claim. Most of

the

misidentified

counter _arguments

occured prior

the statement

of

the main

claim. In

conclusion

identification of claim is

important

to

accurately _rcpresent the author's intended meaning.

b)

Identification the Reason (the Support)

Supported reason

is actually

sub-claims

that

are elaborated

with

backing.

For examples, one

of

the reason provided to support not having the death penalty _is,

r8-htp://argumentative

paragraph. Edu/compwht.php! _ac€cs€d or august 256 2Wg

27

that

is unfair. This claim

was then supported

by

evidence

that is

both

racially

and economical biased. In conclusion the support reason as stronger the thesis statement

(claim)

c.

Identification

the Weakness of the Reason.

d. To Eva.luate

How

Strongly Each Reason Supports the Claim.

e. Mistaken Assumption (the Warrant)

The authors state

their

main

point in

the

first

sentence

or first

paragraph.

In our

systematic

sampling of

arguments,

we notice that authon commonly

present and dismiss a cotmter argument before presenting the cenhal argument.

According

Means and Voss

it

may be that students arc unaware

of

this practice, and they may not understand

why

opposing points are mentioned in the same text. ^3e [n conclusion to make the assumption

it

can be seen from the thesis statement, reason, and support reason

of

Argumentative Paragraph and the

wanant

is the concluding

of $e

reason and support reason thaf using reader's own word.

Based on the some statements above

it

is clear thal the

difficulty of

students

in

reading the argumentative paragraph are

to identiffing point of view

the author and

to know the implicit

meaning

of

the argumentative paragraph that

wriften

by the author.

4. Reading Comprehension

According to Fauziati reading is a

process

of decoding written

symbols,

working from smaller unia (individual

leuers)

to

large ones (words, clauses, and

"-n*,r/y]:Y,

_!-1*1. ^Ling. Northwestem. _Edu / Meredith/ tarson Britt t-arson pdf. Html (online on March 29'2009)

28

sentence).{o

Meanwhile in oxford

dictionary explained that reading is the action

of

person

who

reads, another

opinion is *ared by Nufiadi and

Roekhan, and they stated that reading

is

process done

to

achieve the message.

information, or

case

in

the text-{l

Reading is

a

very complex process.

Il

requires a high level

of

muscular coord.inate, sustained

efort

and concenlration.

But

reading

is

more

than

^just

o visual

rask not

only

must the reader see

and identifl,

the symbol in

front of hin but also

he must

interpret uhat he reads in the light of

^his

o*'n

background, associate

with

past eryrcrienced..and

project

beyond this

in term of

idea, judgments,

application and

conclusions.t:

Based

on the

some statements

above reading is the

process

to

understand and interpret the

written text, to look

at understand the meaning

of written

and printed words or symbols, to discover or

find

out about something, to interpret _something

in pafiicular

way, a way in

which

something is interpreted or understood.

There are some

definitions of

comprehension according

to

expert that are quoted.

According to

Tarjana comprehension

is

related

with

storage

of

preposition in the long-term memory

of

listeners. Then,

Durkin

states that comprehension is the essence

of

reading.

It is active

and

intentional thinking in which the

meaning is constructed

through

interactions between

the text

and

the

reader.a3

After

wards,

o Endang Fauziari. _Teaching of Engtish.p- t3g

_ ^''

Nurhadi and Roekhan, Dimensi4imensi pengqjaran dalam Bahasa Kedua, Bandung:

Sinar baru 1990. p-

l9t

^ ^t']911*-

^{AndeEon. Elicient} Reoding: A praaicol Guide,Sydney: Mcgraw- Hill Bmk Company, _{1965, p. 5}

1r http'J/Reading. l/oregon Edu/compwhat.php,aceeesd on March 22d 2009

29

comprehension

is the

understanding

of ^what

^has been read.

It

depends

upon

the readers understanding

of

words meaning,

abitity.

to dra*,

inferences.!

In

conclusion. comprehension

is the

goal

of

reading

instruction that is

the

ability to

understand the meaning

of

paragraph

or texl

and the

abilitv to

derermine the topic,

topic

sentence. and main idea or the

pouer of

undemanding. an exercise

aimed at improving or testing one's

underslanding

of a

langnage

(lrritten or

spoken). The reader must be able to retell by their own words after finished reading.

in

written

or spoken to show their comprehension,

tie

reader have to know that they

have the information that have they read not only read whole text without

understanding.

5. The

kvels of

Comprehension

According to

Scheele there are

four levels of

comprehension

that we

can apply.

to any leaming material.

These

levels can aid us in our own

honest self-

reflection on the extent of

understanding

they also organize and

speed

up

the leaming process.

a- Awareness-

It

means

more

then

jus knowing that a book

or

joumal _article

_exists

just

because

it is

on the reading

list if

a

joumal _article

_{has an}

_abstracl

_read

it

and you

will

be aware

of

the

author's

main argument.

You

gain a

lot from

awareness

of

the material.

Firstly, you

get an abstract model

of

the material

which

greatly aids

your mental organization when you _move on to tle next level of

comprehension.

2009

-

_Http ,// cor". I-lth. Tmc. E&t/ projea/rpri-presentation-l shtml, accessed on m Mrch 22d

Secondly, you can do this very

quickly.

In the

time it

takes to read one

anicle from start to finish. Finally,

awareness

of a ^greater range of ^material will

spark connections in your mind between different articles.

b.

Familiarity

Is about getting

to

grips

with

the structure

of

an article and discovering the most relevant parts. You have got a survey

ofa

handful article; you can now choose

the

ones

you think most

relevant

or most

interesting

and

spend

more time

\Mith these.

c. Knowledge

Knowledge consist

of

an investigation

into why tie autlor

makes the

claim

he does, what evidence they

offer,

and how they have constructed and defined the key concepts used

in

the article. However, you are not going to be able to convince anyone else

ofthe

author's argument

without

n presenting the belief the support the argument.

d. Expertise

This

is the

level our

lecturers operate on, and

it

requircs a morc

significant

time commitrnent and a

high

degree

of

interest

in

your subject.

This level

involves synoptic reading; a comprehensive and multi-dimensional knowledge

of

concepts; a broad knowledge

of

many theorical positions _and

their significant;

methodological soundness; and

original

and sophisticated

critical

analysis. ^a5

_

'5 http:tt Ciloas- student- journal, group, shef, ac, ukJcose studies. Html, accessed on March I tb 2oo9

30

31

According to

Anderson. reading

is

made up

ofa collection of different skill

in comprehension. Some

skills

that needed in comprehension

skill

they are:

I ) Knowledge

of uord

meanings:

2) Knowledge

of

stated facrs:

i) Ability

to

identifr

the main theme:

.1)

Ability

to

follow

the organization

of

a passage;

5)

Ability

to grasp causal relationship;

6)

Ability

to draw infercnce;

7)

Ability

to see the author purpose. ^a6

Based

on tie

^some statements above

the

students have

different skill to

comprehend

the text and the level of

comprehension

can

use

to

support the students in comprehending the text.

6.

traming

Stategies

for

Reading Comprehension

Some strategies rhat can be practically applied are:

a ldentiff

the Purpose

in

Reading

The efficient

rcading consists

of clearly identifring

the purpose

in

reading something.

By doing

so

you know

what

you

are

looking for

and

we

can weed out

potential distracting.

Based

on this

statement

in

reading process, before begin

to

read must determine what _{is the}

information

looking for

of

a paragraph

b. Use Graphemic Rules and Pattems to

Aid in

Bottom-up Decoding (especially

for

Beginning Level Learners).

6 Jonathan Anders oq Eficient Reading A Practical Guide,l969, p. 3