Handbook of Strategic Management: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, geredigeer deur Jack Rabin, Gerald J.
INTRODUCTION
UNEMPLOYMENT AND INFLATION A. Conservative Alternatives
Raising interest rates to reduce inflation can have the effect of lowering prices by reducing the use of borrowed money. It would also reduce the government's ability to give tax breaks and well-placed subsidies to boost productivity.
Liberal Alternatives
The democratic counterpart since 1980 was to increase employment through government jobs and reduce inflation through price controls. These benefits may be more than offset by the adverse effects in reducing the business's ability to borrow for expansion, inventory, and other purposes.
A Win-Win Alternative
- ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DISPLACED WORKERS A. Economic Growth
An SOS package could promote economic growth directly rather than indirectly through private investment and consumption, although the SOS package could also potentially increase investment and consumption. Other important economic indicators besides economic growth are unemployment, inflation and measures of income equality.
Displaced Workers and Firms
The alternative is to satisfy conservatives by enabling the police and courts to be more effective in fighting crime, so that they do not need as much money. The alternative also involves satisfying liberals by enabling the police and courts to be more effective in applying fair procedures.
SOS Taxing
The courts can be more effective in reducing crime by using better screening and reporting of those released on bail before trial. The police can be more efficient and effective by issuing a summons to appear in many arrest cases rather than booking and sending the suspect to jail.
The Deficit
- ORGANIZING THE ECONOMY
Liberals oppose the amendment because they want to allow federal spending to fight unemployment and stimulate economic growth. It also allows for a reduction in social welfare spending, with an increase in spending on economic growth activities.
Alternative Ways of Relating the Government to the Economy
Government Versus Private Ownership and Operation
The two most qualified lowest bidders could both receive contracts for different geographic areas, industry sectors, or other aspects of the contract to promote competition. All of these goals can be better achieved by requiring them as part of the contract when outsourcing.
Competition as a Key Factor
Productivity and the liberal goals can be further increased by appropriate government incentives by way of well-placed tax credits and subsidies. This goes beyond what can be achieved through government ownership or control combined with outsourcing to private industry.
Equality in Socialism and Capitalism
An SOS alternative is competition, which is likely to lead to even better overall business profits than the marketplace, but not necessarily better profits for each company. Competition is likely to lead to better consumer prices and product quality than regulation.
Political-Economic Competition and Prosperity
- OTHER ECONOMIC ISSUES
Moreover, one can interpret Table 10 as indicating that industrialized nations are more likely to have a higher standard of living than non-industrialized nations regardless of political and economic competition. Another conclusion, drawn from Table 6, is that whether a country has capitalist private ownership or socialist government ownership is practically irrelevant to prosperity compared to political-economic competition and industrialization. 4.
Land
The United States may be the only country in the world where farmers have been encouraged to produce less to create artificially high prices. In other countries, farmers are encouraged to grow more to feed the population and have crops for export.
Labor
Unfortunately, when the set-aside subsidies were removed, the Asian and Russian markets became less able to buy. The problem seems to be that when China or Russia want to buy wheat, they are likely to buy it from Australia, Argentina or Canada because they can afford Australian, Argentine and Canadian dollars better than they can afford the US.
Capital
- INTRODUCTION—MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
- MULTILATERAL DEVELOPMENT BANKS AS POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
Although most observers agree that AfDB and ADB's environmental record has improved in recent years, this area remains one of the most controversial and contentious in the banks. But before we can proceed with this task, we need a theoretical tool that can guide us in finding the factors that constrained and stimulated the development of environmental policy in AfDB and ADB.
The AfDB and the ADB as Negotiated International Regimes
On the contrary, Krasner (1981) argued that major donors do not enjoy voting influence commensurate with the size of their contributions. With regard to the AfDB, Mingst (1990) argued that although the hegemons who had played such a key role in the other MDBs were unable to exert undue influence in the Bank, the level of political conflict had penetrated deeply into the institution.
Institutional Bargaining
Actors involved in institutional negotiations usually focus on some main problems and seek to find solutions that each participant can accept as fair in the sense that the outcome generated during the arrangement will be broadly acceptable regardless of where the participants may be placed in the outcome . .12. Whereas traditional utilitarian negotiation models emphasize interaction within the subject area in question, institutional negotiation thus has a number of connections to other events taking place in the international political economy.
Institutional Bargaining and Multilateralism
- THE AFDB AND THE ENVIRONMENT—A SLOW START, AND A SLUGGISH LEARNER?
Rather, it seems more likely that under institutional bargaining the outcome of political processes is a Pandora's box that is constantly reopened by different actors for different political reasons. However, according to Young, the probability for cooperative settlements of institutional bargaining games is increased by exogenous shocks and/or effective leadership.
Origins
Even in negotiations that offer considerable scope for integrative bargaining under a veil of uncertainty, institutional bargaining shows a natural tendency to fall into a kind of sparring match in which participants chase positional advantages and lose track of their common interest in the solution of the relevant collective-action problem (Young 1989:371). With regard to leadership, emphasis will be placed on the role of Japan and the United States in the Banks.
The Official Picture
Exogenous shocks are a contextual variable and not an inherent part of the negotiation process per se. According to the institution itself, he closely followed the work of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment, the recommendations of the Lagos Action Plan 1980-2000 and the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development.
Organization and Staffing
If we simply look at the bank's participation in international environmental forums, the bank can thus be interpreted as a relatively fast starter. However, as we will see when we turn to the issue of developing and implementing an operational environmental policy for the AfDB, it is highly questionable whether the bank acted quickly or is actually a slow starter and a slow learner in this subject area.
Environmental Policy
According to the AfDB (1994a), its mandate has become increasingly challenging over the past decade, as many of its regional members faced an unprecedented economic crisis caused by foreign debt and a deterioration in their terms of trade. It was in response to increased concerns about the state of the environment from both recipient and donor countries that the AfDB initiated a program of activities that addressed environmental problems in Africa.25
Decision Making and Organisational Procedures
The voting ratio, two-thirds for the regional and one-third for the non-regional members, is crucial for the functioning of the executive directors. He represents no constituency, only the United States, and his level of consultation with his home office is higher than that of other executive directors (Mingst 1990).
Resolution by Consensus
In fact, the United States is often, as a single-national voting block, the only actor that can speak with a single significant voice at the negotiating table. The problem is that the US is doing it alone, and the end result is most often that US opposition in this form means an end to the conversation and an African shrug, rather than a reform of the loan agreement based on institutional negotiations. .
Example of a Formative Policy Discussion
The United States was interpreted as an actor without the ability or willingness to compromise. In this case, the United States was prevented by domestic restrictions from fulfilling its part of the process.
Recent Developments
- THE ADB—THE FAST LEARNER?
When opposition from US NGOs and Washington reached the AfDB, the Bank's Environment Unit tried to take advantage of the situation. Her conclusion was that the project, with some modifications - the planned fences were moved to double the effective wildlife management area, allowed greater access to water and fodder sources and confirmation of the Botswana government's plans to set aside larger tracts of land in the south. for wildlife conservation - would not actually lead to further desertification, but rather prevent it (AfDB 1987).
Decision Making and Organization
Initially capitalized at $1 billion, ADB's authorized capital was $51.9 billion at the end of 1996. However, the close relationship between Japan and ADB may indicate that the issue of leadership may play an important role. in the formation of the Bank's policy.
Leadership: Japan and the United States
The factor of exogenous shocks is not present in the ADB in the same form as in the AfDB in the formative period. Throughout its history as a donor, Japan has done its utmost to avoid interference in the internal affairs of recipient countries.
Environmental Issues and Orientation
However, even by observers critical of the ADB's environmental practices, it is conceded that the Environmental Unit's promotion to civil service status has increased its scope and internal bargaining power. To be more precise, we will turn our attention to one of the Council's first discussions regarding the development of an environmental policy for the ADB.
Example of a Formative Policy Discussion
Summing Up the ADB Experience with Environmental Policy
- CONCLUSION
- BACKGROUND
- METHOD AND STUDY DESIGN
For example, in the Agreement establishing the African Development Bank and the Agreement establishing the Asian Development Bank, the following principle of political neutrality is stated: "The Bank, its presidents, vice-presidents, officers and staff may not interfere in the political affairs of any members, nor shall they be influenced in their decisions by the political character of the member concerned. Some of the non-regional members are only actively interested in the AfDB when procurement contracts are on the agenda.
Cultural Realms
The field study is based on the author's personal work experience as responsible for business economic studies at the National Transportation Authority and interviews 10 managers from SOEs, four managers from relevant ministries (Transport, Finance, Economy and Planning), three representatives of consumer associations, 12 managers from private companies and three representatives from regional/local authorities. The ancient kingdom points to the pluralistic civil and economic organization of society.
Transaction Costs
However, the discretionary behavior of managers and employees in SOEs significantly increases information influence and transaction costs. The assumption that decision makers in SOEs act in the interests of beneficiaries has been rejected by empirical testing (Kelvin 1994, 1995b).
Strategic Partnerships
Weakening of property rights in state-owned enterprises discourages beneficial specialization, and rents collected may favor narrow interest groups. Overhead costs were five times higher per unit of traffic in the public sector than in the private sector.
Methodological Summary
- THREE VERSIONS OF CORPORATE REFORM
For the selected port projects, up to 90% of the financing at the Matadi main port and up to 75% at the Kinshasa main river port could have been provided by the private sector.
Divisionalized Version of New Corporate Organization
Holding Version of Corporate Organization
- OPTIMAL COMBINATION OF PRIVATE AND PUBLIC PROVISION
- REGULATION CONUNDRUM
- CONCLUSION
- INTRODUCTION
- CORPORATISM IN SOUTH AFRICA
- WHAT IS CORPORATISM FOR?
- CORPORATISM: PRAGMATIC OR IDEOLOGICAL?
- CORPORATISM: RESOLVING PROBLEMS OR IMPOSING UNION HEGEMONY?
- FROM CONFLICT TO ORDER OR FROM ORDER TO CONFLICT?
- STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT DILEMMA
- STRUCTURAL ADJUSTMENT LEGACY
- POLITICS OF ADJUSTMENT
- THE SAR AND THE FAILURE OF NEOLIBERALISM
- OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION
Report on the implementation of the United Nations' New Agenda for the Development of Africa in the 1990s (UN-NADAF). Implementation of the African strategies for the implementation of Agenda 21 and the African common position: progress report.
Kenya
This paper is based on a visit to Nairobi, Kenya and Lusaka, Zambia, which included trade unions, industrial tribunals, tribunal judges and material provided to me by clients. The Industrial Court of Kenya is the final arbiter of all disputes relating to the construction and interpretation of a contract.
Zambia
- GOING TO COURT
In both Kenya and Zambia, the Industrial Courts are imposing and somewhat intimidating entities. Since the Industrial Court is the final arbiter of all trade disputes in the country, it is taken very seriously by the parties.
The Judge of the Kenya Industrial Court
There is no appeal against the decisions of the Judge of the Court in either country. It is therefore the special responsibility of the Industrial Court to play an important role in the implementation of social justice.
Attending the Court Hearing
Because of the close link between the government's drive for increased employment and productivity, it becomes the court's job to make decisions within the broader framework of national economic growth. The court operates with the understanding that its decisions are inextricably woven into the lifeblood of the country.
The Judge of the Zambia Industrial Court
The Court is concerned not only with doing justice in the case at hand but also with making those decisions which are conducive to general industrial harmony. Although not specifically addressing all of the parties' arguments, the court does provide the key persuasive factors that have led it to its conclusion.
Attending the Court Hearing
- ISSUES IN DISPUTE RESOLUTION
- ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT
- CONCLUDING COMMENTS
- ECONOMIC RECONSTRUCTION AND RAPID GROWTH
- TECHNOCORPORATISM
- ECONOMIC CRISES, INTERNATIONAL TRADE FRICTION, AND DOMESTIC MARKET OPENING
- TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF THE INDUSTRIAL
- SUCCESSFUL MODEL OF TECHNOCORPORATISM IN JAPAN
- TRANSFORMATION OF THE SOUTH KOREAN ECONOMY
- ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT AND GOVERNMENT STRATEGIES
- SOUTH KOREA’S INDUSTRIAL CHALLENGE AND TECHNOLOGICAL STRATEGIES
- REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY BASED ON HIGH TECHNOLOGY
- CONCLUSIONS
- HISTORY OF LARGE-SCALE STORE REGULATION
- SMALL RETAILERS AND MITI
- POLITICS OF THE RETAIL VISION OF THE 1990s
- FOREIGN PRESSURE MADE IN JAPAN?
- JAPAN FEDERATION OF ECONOMIC ORGANIZATIONS
- POLITICS VERSUS ADMINISTRATION
- AFTER THE AMENDMENT
- INCREMENTAL CHANGES AND THE CRUMBLING OPPOSITION
- FURTHER DELAY IN REFORMS
- CONCLUSION
- INTRODUCTION: INDIA’S DEVELOPMENTAL GOALS
- CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF STUDY
- METHODOLOGY: A WIN-WIN POLICY ANALYSIS
In the mid-1960s, it accounted for more than half of all state expenditures. Changes in the retail structure steadily reduced the effectiveness of regulations.
Win-Win Policy
Super-Optimum Solutions (SOS)
Methodological Problem in Evaluation
Benchmark Data
- WIN-WIN POLICY I: STATE-LED DEMOCRATIC SOCIALIST (NEHRUVIAN) MODEL
- IMPACT OF THE NEHRUVIAN MODEL
In short, immediately after independence India was one of the most underdeveloped countries in the world. In a democracy everything the government does should be for the welfare of the people.
Alleviation of Poverty
The underlying rationale/philosophy of public sector expansion was that PSUs were supposed to create employment opportunities, generate surplus wealth, reduce poverty, remove regional disparities, promote prosperity and enable India to contribute to international understanding and peace. Thus, the economic situation of half of India's farmers, who grew coarse grains, pulses and oilseeds in dry regions, has not improved in the four decades since independence.
Employment
This indicated the gross poverty that existed in the country, as the standard used for these purposes was mainly based on calorie intake. In terms of nutrition, the average availability of grains per person had increased from 334 to 429 g/day in 1986-87, although this is still not sufficient to provide two square meals for the entire population.
Economic Growth