This chapter also discusses the implications of the changing nature of governance for the study of implementation. The logical connotation of the original question can be called "the implementation follows the formulation and the decision theorem". It is useful both analytically and heuristically for the study and practice of the political process.
What can be called "public policy" and therefore must be implemented is a product of what happened in the earlier stages of the political process. DeLeon downplays all kinds of detailed definitions, calling implementation studies "little more than comparing what is expected with what is achieved" (1999a: 330). And indeed, sometimes, as in the case of a particularly serious accident or disaster, the use of the label "political fiasco".
Kooiman (1999) provides a classification of the different ways in which the term "governance" has been used in the literature so far. According to Pierre and Peters, the term "governance" in Europe refers to the "new governance": the idea of involving society in the governance process.
Notes
Hargrove then (1975) wrote about the "missing link" in the study of the political process, while Pressman and Wildavsky's influential Implementation was published in 1973. This is clearly very similar to the key principle embodied in the idea of the rule of law. In this sense, 'rationality' is embodied in the structure of rules, regardless of where they come from.
Wilson (1968) was one of the first to discover patterns in the way police officers use their discretion. Here we have a clear rejection of the normative assumption embedded in the top-down approach. We have already identified Sabatier as a key figure in the establishment of the 'top-down'.
Some writers present an alternative in the form of the rise of the "virtual state". In the second part of the chapter, the connections between the study of implementation and the practice of public administration are further explored. One of the present authors was heavily involved in this British work (Barrett and Hill, 1981; Ham and Hill, 1984).
In an assessment of the state of the field, Kettl refers to F. After Waldo's The Administrative State (1948), some authors now speak of the "increasingly organizational state" (Laumann and Knoke, 1987) or the. In the second half of the 1990s, British interest in implementation theory appeared to have seriously declined.
In the practice of public administration, the container nature of the management concept can mislead political decision-makers. Dunsire, looking at the development of the study of public administration, states: 'Having been "public administration" in the 1970s, and staying. Nevertheless, in the 1990s, the traditional relevance of the central political institutions began to be relativized.
Note
There will likely be a need for careful attention to causal variables that are not controllable by those involved in the policy process, either as policy makers or implementers. Concerns about 'control' for these types of variables are important regardless of whether the dependent variable is an output or an outcome, even though this is more clearly important in the latter case. Issues about what can and cannot be controlled may relate to normative questions about what types of activities should be undertaken.
In this section we have explored some of the issues of doing implementation research using a real example. There is considerable potential for using an implementation research approach to highlight questions about a contested policy initiative. Statistical modeling for such a project is likely to be possible if there is data that differentiates outputs/outcomes at different times or locations.
As governments collect, use and disclose monitoring data, it can provide a good foundation for such quantitative work. It may be important to look for ways to embed qualitative work within quantitative work, recognizing the difficulties in exploring the mechanics of implementation processes through statistical techniques alone. Research techniques that 'control' for the variables that those involved in the policy process cannot control are needed to ensure that it is really implementation processes that are being investigated.
Introduction
On the basis of the normative principles exposed there, in the second half of the chapter an imperative orientation is developed. This process is involved in a series of vertical and horizontal relationships between the organizations involved in the formulation of the specific policy. Third, much of the advice offered in the literature on multi-stakeholder implementation is contradictory.
The state of the field's development imposes 'a real limitation on the quality of advice available to those involved in the policy process'. However, it may be political will that is crucial in the first place, in which case we are back in the realm of the normative. What should be considered appropriate action is largely related to the composite nature of the specific GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT OF IMPLEMENTATION 175 context.
The opposite (in the sense presented in Table 8.2) to these is the normative or political world. The government mainly 'runs' the structure, involved as it is at the beginning and end of the governance cycle. In the next section we develop an analytical framework that may be useful for practitioners to make an assessment of the context in which they are expected to operate.
The following sections examine for each of the three loci the dimensions within which the respective variety can be captured. Policy conflict is an indication of the degree of conflict that can be observed in the policy formulation phase and thus is expected to continue in the implementation phase. Is the product of policymaking the specification of expected outcomes, or of outputs?
What is decisive for the institutional set-up is the character of the relevant inter-organisational relationship. For the locus of the 'street level' the variety of implementing organizations must first be mapped.5 Distinguish between dimensions relating to the character of outputs and outcomes, James Q. As a summary characteristic for micro-institutions the nature of the prevailing orientation is used can be.
