3.1 (a) Framework for environmental and sustainability policy 51 (b) The extended emergency risk management process 52 3.2 Framework for policy and institutional analysis for emergencies. Poorer countries may find that 'the effects of disasters wipe out years of development and take years to reverse' (Egeland, 2006).
This book
More practice-oriented sources include the Emergency Management Australia (EMA) Handbook series (www.ema.gov.au) and equivalents. Other sources include key organizations and their websites, such as the EMA (www.ema.gov.au); United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN–ISDR, www.unisdr.org); Hazards Center at the University of Colorado, Boulder, USA (www.colorado.edu/hazards); Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC, www.adpc.net/), Bangkok, Thailand; and the Benfield UCL Hazard Research Center at University College London, UK (www. benfieldhrc.org/).
Constructing the Problem
This chapter outlines our approach to contemporary thinking about disasters, their definition, trends and underlying causes, drawing on a broad characterization of the field and on some short 'vignette' case studies. Risk now occupies a central place in thinking about contemporary society, as illustrated by the work of social theorists Beck (1992) and Giddens (2000), who argue that modern society is better understood in relation to risk rather than, for example, class.
Overview of disaster trends
Emergency and disaster institutions
Through different strategies involving resources, legal authority, information provision, etc., depending on the context, instruments used, etc. Professionalization; highly responsive and rapidly changing to events, policy changes, community preferences, media, etc.
The nature of disasters and emergencies
Cause and effect
Increasingly complete and sophisticated data can add to the size of the list of disasters and emergencies. Unfortunately, this is often closely related to environmental degradation, such as the removal of the natural protection against storms and flooding provided by mangroves, wetlands and sand dunes.
Evolution of emergency management: From ‘acts of God’ to socially constructed disasters
After the war, it was not long before there was another threat that had a military aspect - the Cold War and the possibility of nuclear attack - which created the necessity to maintain civil defense capabilities. Recent shifts in thinking in emergency management are in line with our position, and are summarized in Table 1.2.
Illustrative vignettes
A report in the journal Nature shortly after the event noted that "the similarities between the simulation of Katrina and Hurricane Pam (used to train emergency management agencies at various levels of government) are eerie" (Reichhardt et al, 2005). Eventually the enlarged levee was overcome, the city was flooded and the population was evacuated by helicopter – the problem shifted from protection to escape.
Key challenges
This and the other imperatives mentioned above emphasize the importance of the institutional context that defines ongoing disaster and emergency capabilities and strategies. It then places policy in the context of the contemporary political environment, characterizing emergencies and disasters as policy and institutional problems.
Core concepts and terms
Within a political network or subsystem are those we call "policy makers or decision makers" - this can be an imprecise term. This shows the complexity of what lies behind the terms 'policy' and 'institution', especially if we remember that the actors and context of political processes vary widely across jurisdictions, times and issues.
Traditions and trends in policy analysis
In the case of emergencies and disasters, contexts vary enormously depending on magnitude, uncertainty, onset, and vulnerabilities; logically, the nature of the policy processes best equipped to deal with this will vary. Perhaps surprisingly, the policy literature lacks useful typologies of policy problems that extend beyond simple categories and classifications (Linder and Peters, 1989).
Policy styles and the political environment
This makes understanding and (even more) influencing policy much more complex; but we can at least identify some of the major political ideas and trends within which a policy domain such as emergencies and disasters exists. This point is particularly relevant to emergencies and disasters where, given the potentially extreme costs of getting it wrong, the choice of policy style must now be related to the precise nature of the policy problem.
Emergencies and disasters as policy and institutional problems
Taken together, these attributes confirm that emergencies and disasters are large, complex, and indeed difficult and different. If emergencies and disasters are fundamentally different in nature, then it follows that the necessary political and institutional responses will also be different.
Reconciling policy with emergencies and disasters
The very important point that emerges is that given the nature of emergencies and disasters, it is likely that existing policies and institutional capacities, which have co-evolved with other such policy areas, creating the traditions and trends summarized more above, can reasonably be expected to deal with emergencies and disasters. Since disasters are by definition anomalous, this is an obvious point, perhaps; but it has not been used often enough in a structured way to explore policy and institutional responses, as is the purpose of this book.
Notes
While other policy areas and problems are not "easy," they rarely have multiple combinations of these attributes. 2 This set of attributes follows that developed for sustainability problems, a problem area closely related to emergencies and disasters (see Dovers.
Constructing the Response
This chapter draws on Chapter 1, which examined the nature of emergencies and disasters, and on Chapter 2, which examined the nature of policies and institutions. It combines these insights to create a framework for describing, analyzing and prescribing broad approaches to policy and institutional frameworks for emergencies and disasters.
Policy cycles meet emergency risk management
It considers the appropriateness of the standard policy cycle model and an emergent risk management framework; assesses their strengths and weaknesses; and develops a new framework specifically designed to address emergencies and disasters, and to better address the strategic policy and institutional perspective that is the focus of this book. The two frameworks in Figure 3.1 provide a detailed basis for examining key issues for policy and institutional development in emergencies and disasters.
A framework for policy and institutional analysis
This part of the framework proposes core features of institutional arrangements that are more likely to facilitate them. But this maxim is certainly nowhere as widely observed nor as widely supported when it comes to the policy and institutional context in which operational activities are embedded.
Using the framework
Chapter 5, 'Framing the problem', deals with step 1 of the framework, which spans social and political debate, knowledge requirements, assessment of risk and uncertainty and problem definition. Chapter 6, 'Responding to the problem', addresses steps 2 and 3 of the framework: policy formulation and implementation.
Note
As in the book as a whole, the focus is more on the political and institutional level than on operational management. It then goes under the general concept of "community participation" and explores who, why and how participates with the public: community definition, purposes of participation and forms of participation.
Policy and politics
While community pressure may compel participation, or opportunities for participation may be offered voluntarily, in each case it is critical that public participation be genuine in intent and design. It is clear that public understanding and participation in the management, policy and institutional aspects of emergencies and disasters are important and complex.
Who? Defining ‘community’
For example, while members of a real estate association may work together in the interest of the industry as a whole, individuals may be in fierce competition in the marketplace. Recalling the terminology from Chapter 2, some may be members of a political community engaged in political debate; others may be active in political networks and have greater influence.
Why? Purposes and degrees of participation
Recovery and the long-term survival and prosperity of affected areas depend on the vitality of the local economy. Different purposes imply a series of degrees of relationship between citizens and the state and between citizens and state authorities.
How? Options for community engagement
It also seems that in large parts of the world, people's expectations of emergency management are increasing. All involved should be aware that participation in emergency management is ideally about collaboration (doing with) rather than direction (doing).
Communication: The lifeblood of participation
Those relevant to the problem need to be included, requiring a reasonable fine-scale understanding of the 'community', and multiple participatory strategies are needed to involve all parts of the community. Individuals and participating groups need to be made aware of the limits of knowledge and uncertainties surrounding the issues.
Communication challenges
As a result, victims often feel abandoned despite the promises made in the glare of the international media spotlight. Many inquiries made in the name of learning lead to increased caution, with little change as far as those at risk are concerned.
Conclusion
While everyone may agree that there is a problem (eg, a flood threat) and even on the symptoms, there is likely to be conflict about the causes and what to do. The simple question: 'What's the problem?' will elicit a range of views to be negotiated as policy is developed, drawing on the approaches described in Chapters 4 and 6.
Problem framing
To some extent, and sometimes to a large extent, this conflict will arise from the way the problem is framed. The problem is that some communities are particularly vulnerable to flooding, and the goal will be to reduce that.
Cause–effect linkages
Organizations often learn the wrong things from an emergency management perspective, such as how to cut costs or cut costs (eg Herald of Free Enterprise Report from Maritime Accident Investigation Branch, undated). 1 with very large natural events such as the 2004 Boxing Day tsunami; there are many national examples (eg Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans and the 1999 hail storm in Sydney);
Pervasive uncertainty
Depending on the nature of the problem, information including that produced by science helps reduce uncertainty here. However, the third category also contains many of the assumptions and agendas of stakeholders in risk and emergency management, as well as many perversities and institutional barriers.
Attributes of emergency management policy problems
Conflicting/ambiguous goals as goals for emergency management (and public safety) are often set against development and commercial imperatives and practice, and sometimes against political ideologies. Different agencies involved in emergency management may have conflicting views on how best to approach the task.
A typology of disasters and emergencies
The ability to cope/manageability will depend on the type of emergency, the organizations involved and the sophistication of the concept. Tackiness will vary depending on the type of emergency and the institutions taking the lead, and will change over time.
Routine
PRF problems are typically situations where there is conflict about how to approach a risk or even about how to define the risk. Where the physical dimensions of the risk are well defined and agreed upon, the response and event management can take the form of a PRF problem, as with Hurricane Katrina.
Non-routine
Their other categories are 'professional consultancy', applicable to non-routine problems, and 'applied (or normal) science'. The strategic challenges are for policy to shift non-routine problems into routine ones and to do so in a cost-effective manner.
Complex emergencies
Even if the problems are not clearly global, they can affect us anywhere – the emotional impact of terrorism, the pursuit of compensation in jurisdictions outside the event (e.g. Bhopal), expansion of regulations or best practices worldwide (e.g. transportation, nuclear energy). dam safety and industrial accidents), or in governmental and non-governmental aid. The full impact and course of the event depend on the choices made/not made as the event unfolds.
The risk standard
A leading international model, the Australian-New Zealand Risk Management Standard, views risk in terms of the likelihood of something happening that will impact objectives (Standards Australia, 2004; see Chapter 3). But those at risk – the public – emphasize elements of fairness and trust rather than numerical probabilities, while cultural researchers argue that 'it seems more appropriate to view risk as the embodiment of deeply held cultural values and beliefs' (Jasanoff et al. al, 1995). .
Hierarchy of goals, issues and problems
Maintaining economic productivity and distribution pattern (ensure adaptation is part of existing emergency management and planning programs) Instruments. This chapter covers key issues relating to the choice of policy approach and the selection and implementation of policy instruments.
Broad policy choice: Generic resilience or specific instruments?
It does not discuss in detail all available instruments, but rather provides an overview of policy instruments and styles, and uses indicative examples. Policy implementation can be plagued by individual and organizational deviations, unintended consequences, legal problems, conflicts with other social goals and expectations, and changing political or administrative priorities.
Generic approaches to hazards management
1 those that try to build resilience through the development process, and sometimes by solving serious obstacles to social and economic advancement, such as systemic violence;. This is not limited to developing countries; most countries contain significant groups whose social and economic status dictates daily survival priorities.
Specific approaches to hazards management
One of the major challenges for emergency managers is to accept the limitations of the planning and preparedness tools. One goal of the planning process is to build a circle of support for the plan or guidelines.
Policy problems and policy instruments
This category may also include policy processes or decisions on a variety of routine problems, such as the establishment of a multi-hazard policy process or national floodplain management standards. The response will need maximum flexibility and adaptability, and will need to provide the necessary leadership to make decisions, utilize society's resources and have the capacity to expand critical facilities, such as victim care, identification and handling the dead, and transporting and rationing food. supplies.
Policy instruments and styles of implementation
Is the proposal and implementation of the instrument feasible in terms of political support and institutional capacities. Communicability Can the logic, details and implementation requirements of the instrument be communicated to those responsible for or affected by the implementation.
Policy styles and attributes required for implementation
The cooperative approach to policy design seeks to make those at risk (or lower levels of government) partners in achieving emergencies or policy goals (see Table 6.3). Emphasis is typically placed on regulatory or performance goals (e.g., public safety and reduced potential for flood damage), rather than on prescribed standards (e.g., prohibiting floodplain development), under the assumption that local governments or members of the community will devise the best means within their community to achieve this goal. such goals.
Implementation attributes
Other constructions are possible; but the key challenge remains to maintain a broad menu of policy instruments and to choose according to the challenges faced, rather than relying on unthinking inclination. Accordingly, our coverage of M&E is a brief summary later in this chapter, with most space devoted to the broader concept of policy learning, as it is more relevant to the themes of this book.
Uncertainty, time and learning
In a professional and organizational sense, close attention to the performance of policies and institutional environments entails risks for individuals, agencies and political leaders, especially in times when blame is sought in debates after a disaster. The emphasis in this book is on the policies and institutional capacities within which operational emergency management operates and is enabled or limited.
Policy and institutional learning: Purposes and forms
4 redefining the policy problem in light of new information and understanding, involving significant redesign of policy interventions. However, these are only some of the sites of policy learning in the institutional landscape.
Basic information capture
On the other side of the warning system, modern information and communication technologies such as the Internet and mobile phones have been enthusiastically adopted by people almost everywhere. 4 Policy-related information, such as the number of operatives trained, the penetration of communication materials, the expenditure of funds or the functioning of inter-agency committees.
Evaluation: The precondition for learning
Finance departments or associated agencies often fulfill a general policy monitoring role, including disaster policy and programs (eg, the US General Accounting Office). The internet is fast becoming the tool for universal access to disaster information (eg the UK's Environment Agency website provides flood zones marked on street maps of the whole country).
Research and education
Areas of critical inquiry include the realms of policy and institutions, and the broad domain of complex, borderless problems. Formal education and training are well documented, materials are readily available, and training can (and often is) provided through tertiary colleges and by emergency management agencies themselves.
Prospects for learning
We argue that insufficient attention has been paid to higher-order policies and institutional contexts for emergencies and disasters, and note how the issue of institutions has emerged consistently in previous chapters. This penultimate chapter collects issues and arguments about institutional contexts for emergencies and disasters.
Institutions: The key to common endeavours
There is also the question of what the purpose of much of the emergency management system was focused on – safety or emergency response – and to what extent this is embedded in the US approach. This contradicts the traditional ethos of the emergency service, which is immediate evacuation.
Institutions and emergencies: Status and issues
Lack of coordination between agencies is one of the constant findings of disaster investigations – the institutional framework often discourages information sharing, cooperation and all that comes from it. Even the endpoints of these various continuities of institutional and political style—the extremes—have their place at certain points and times.
Purpose, form and principles
However, personal networks help provide the flexibility and adaptability needed to make emergency management work, especially for problems outside of the "routine." Regardless of the formal structure, emergency management is expected to encompass an increasing number of agencies, sectors and interests: it is much more than.
Learning, law and liability
If you do not engage with a wider range of groups, formal emergency management organizations are likely to be reduced to a partial role and essential work will remain undone. Legislation in areas that are clearly far removed from the immediate concerns of emergency management can nevertheless be very important.
Constructing the Future
How disastrous a future?
As outlined in Chapter 1, it is the trends in human exposure and vulnerability that are (or should be) clearly within the scope of emergency management. However, for many people around the world, emergency management (including response to events generally considered routine) is limited at best.
Prospects: Anticipation, resilience and adaptation
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