Food Supply Chain Management
This fully updated new edition of a respected text retains the original’s comprehensive and practical approach to food supply chain management, and introduces a global perspective and a wide range of new material. More than ever, this is the food supply chain management textbook.
With an introduction that speaks to academic and non-academic audiences alike, the second edition of Food Supply Chain Management covers all-new topics such as cold chain management, “last mile” logistics, blockchain and traceability in the food supply chain, and the implications of global trade and climate change. Case studies examine the farm-to-table movement, sustainable co-ops, and more, with “quick facts” and mini-cases that are engaging and thought-provoking.
This textbook is appropriate for upper-level undergraduate and postgraduate students of agricultural business, natural resources, and food science, as well as supply chain management students.
Supporting online materials include lecture slides, test banks, and instructor manuals.
Madeleine Pullman is the Willamette Industries Professor of Supply Chain Management at Portland State University in Portland, Oregon. Her major research interests include social impact supply chains, sustainability and supply chain management, food and beverage supply chains, impacts of regulatory turbulence on supply chains, and experiential service design.
Zhaohui Wu is a Professor of Supply Chain Management and Toomey Faculty Fellow at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon, and he is an Honorary Professor at University of Exeter, UK. He is currently teaching and conducting research on supply networks, alternative food systems, agricultural cooperatives and informal economies concerning migrant workers, and refugees.
Food Supply Chain Management
Building a Sustainable Future
Second Edition
Madeleine Pullman and Zhaohui Wu
Second edition published 2021 by Routledge
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First edition published by Routledge 2012 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Pullman, Madeleine, 1957– author. | Wu, Zhaohui, 1968– author.
Title: Food supply chain management: building a sustainable future / Madeleine Pullman and Zhaohui Wu.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. | Previous edition published in 2011. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020048041 (print) | LCCN 2020048042 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Food industry and trade. | Food supply. | Sustainable agriculture.
Classification: LCC HD9000.5 .P85 2021 (print) | LCC HD9000.5 (ebook) | DDC 338.1/9–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048041 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020048042 ISBN: 978-0-367-35119-9 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-0-367-35120-5 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-32988-3 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon
by codeMantra
Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367351205
Table of Contents
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xv
About the Authors xvii Preface to the Second Edition xix Acknowledgements xxiii 1 Introduction to Food Supply Chain Management 1 Introduction 1 The Food System & Society 2 Growing Food Demand and Limits of Production 3 Sustainability Challenges of the Food Supply Chain 5 Key Food Supply Chain Trends 6 Emerging Technologies 7 Evolving Customer Channels 7 Consolidation versus Regional & Localized Supply Chains 8 2 Animal Protein Supply Chains 11 Introduction 11 Industry Overview 12 Beef 15 Pork 19 Eggs & Poultry 22 Dairy 26 Food Safety 31 Animal Welfare 32 Alternative Meats & Dairy 33 Technology Trends Affecting Animal Proteins 34 Case Study: Pet Food Supply Chain 35 3 Seafood Supply Chains 39 Introduction 39 Seafood Supply Chain Structure 40 Fishermen & Producers 42 Fishing Methods 43 Processors 45
vi
Table of Contents
Seafood Wholesale & Distribution 47 Seafood Retail 47 Sustainable Fisheries Management 47 Environmental Issues 48 Social Issues in Fish Supply Chains 50 Overall Seafood Trends 51 Rise of Aquaculture 51 Seafood Alternatives 51 Case Study: Pesky Fish Catch-to-Plate Program 52 4 Crop-Based Supply Chains 57 Introduction 57 Crop Importance & Trends 58 Demand Drivers & Shifters 58 Global Production 59 Commodity Crop Supply Chain Structure 61 Planting & Harvesting 62 Storage 62 Processing 62 Distribution 63 Traceability 63 Corn 63 Corn Supply Chain 65 Soybeans 68 Soybean Supply Chain 68 Wheat 70 Wheat Supply Chain 73 Milling 74 Rice 74 Rice Supply Chain 76 Policy Issues 77 Global Impact of US Policy 77 Social & Environmental Issues 78 Price Increases/Food Shortages 78 Natural Resources & the Environment 78 Genetically Modified Organisms 80 Case Study: The Red Menace Called Ug99 82 5 Fruit & Vegetable Supply Chains 85 Introduction 85 Production & Consumption Trends 87 Global Trade 88 The Produce Supply Chain 91 The Cold Chain 92 Grading & Packing 94 Distribution & Storage 95 Information Exchange in the Supply Chain 96
Table of Contents Inventory Management 96
Food Safety 97 Blockchain 97 Value-Added Supply Chains 98 Value-Added Processing 98 Value-Added Differentiation 98
Case Study: Imperfect Produce for a More
Perfect World 104 Case Study: Riverford Organic Farmers: Ethical Farming
and Community-Supported Agriculture 106 6 Food Manufacturing 113 Introduction 113 Industry Trends 114 Processing & Manufacturing 118 Processing & Food Preservation 118 Food Manufacturing 120 Packaging 123 Traceability 125 Sustainability & Waste Management Issues 125 Market Consolidation 127 Food Innovations 128 Flavor 128 Alternative Meat 130 Vertical Farming 130 Case Study: Manufacturing Fresh Food by Subscription 131 7 Restaurant & Hospitality Industry 135 Introduction 135 Commercial Food Environments 137 Restaurants 137 Other Hospitality Venues 140 Food Delivery Trends 140 Non-commercial Food Environments 141 Government Food Purchasing 141 Public Schools 142 Prisons 143 Military 145 Hospitals 146 Food Service Management 146 Distribution 148 Sales and Pricing 150 Social & Environmental Issues 151 Nutrition 151 Labor 151 Food Waste 152 Case Study: Minimizing Food Waste at Google 153
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Table of Contents
8 Food Retailing & Wholesaling 163 Introduction 163 Traditional & Nontraditional Channels 165 Retail Strategy 167 Distribution, Wholesaling & Inventory Management 173 Wholesaling 173 Inventory & Information Management 174 Technology & the “Smart Supermarket” 176 Retail Store Challenges 177 Online Grocery Integration 177 International Retailing 178
Case Study: Zero-waste Food Packaging: Innovations
and Challenges 180 9 Food Safety & Quality 187 Introduction 187 Government Roles in Food Safety 191 The CDC & Public Health Agencies 193 Global Food Safety 197 Industry’s Role in Food Safety 198 The “Six Ts” 199 Case Study: 2013 European Horse Meat Scandal 201 Category-Specific Concerns 204 Animal Products 204 Produce 205 Grains & Nuts 206 Imported Foods 207 Tampering & Terrorism 208 Case Study: The Chinese Gutter Oil Scandal 209 10 Purchasing & Logistics 215 Introduction 216 Food Purchasing 216 Types of Buyers 217 Sustainable Food Production 219 Nutritional Requirements 219 Logistics 220 Transportation 221 Logistics Challenges 222 Inventory Management 223 Warehousing 224 Packaging 225 Purchasing & Logistics Trends 225 Food Supply Carbon Emissions 225 Transportation-Related Food Safety 226 Prepared Meals 226 Logistics Outsourcing 227
Table of Contents Niche Market Logistics & Distribution 228
Logistics Hubs 229 Case Study: Can Last-Mile Bicycle Delivery Survive? 230 11 Food Security & Humanitarian Relief 237 Introduction 238 Food Development Programs 238 The Green & Brown Revolutions 238 Food Aid 239 Food Security & Self-sufficiency 240 Disaster Relief 244 The Disaster Relief Process 246 The Relief Supply Chain 247 The Decentralized Relief Chain 251 Lessons in Disaster Relief 251 Food Aid Supply Chains versus Commercial Supply Chains 252 Forecasting 253 Procurement 254 Transportation, Storage and Distribution 254 Communication 254 Resource Use and Performance Evaluation 254 Coordination & Collaboration 255 Relief Agency Coordination 255 Government Collaborations 256 Military Assistance 257 Private Industry Collaboration 257 Digital Support 258 Climate Change, Food Security & Disaster Relief 259
Case Study: The Food Supply Chain Is
Breaking Down 261 12 Sustainable Food Supply Chains & Certifications 267 Introduction 267 Marketing Claim Verification 269 First-Party Claims 269 Second-Party Claims 269 Third-Party Claims 270 Government Certifications 270 USDA Organic 270 International Organic Standards 273 Non-Government Food Certifications 274 Fairtrade 276 Rainforest Alliance 277 Vegan Certifications 278 Sustainable Palm Oil 278 Sustainable Fisheries 279 Case Study: Japan’s Bluefin Tuna Fishery 280
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Table of Contents
13 Beverage Supply Chain Management 283 Introduction 283 Beverage Categories 284 Non-alcoholic Beverages 285 Alcoholic Beverages 287 The Beverage Supply Chain 291 Producer and Distributor Relationship 291 Distributor and Retailer Relationship 292 Beverage Social & Environmental issues 295 Public Health Impacts 295 Packaging Impacts 295
Case Study: Semi Di Libertà: Helping Prisoners Build
a Better Future Through Beer 297 14 The Future of Food 301 Introduction 301 Population, Shifting Diets & Food Security 302 Food Security 303 Shifting Supply & Demand 303 Climate Change 304 Commodity versus Regional Food Systems 305 Urbanization 306 Global Trade & Strategic Food 306 Monopoly Food 307 Food versus Natural Resources & Ecosystem Services 308 Sustainable & Regenerative Agriculture 308 Automation & Technology 310 Genetically Modified Organisms 311 Toward a Sustainable Food Supply Chain 311 References 315 Index 325
List of Figures
1.1 Global Production Decline of Major Crops, 2010–2030 4 1.2 Employment in Agriculture versus Other Sectors 8 2.1 Animal Protein Consumption per Person 12 2.2 Per Capita Meat Consumption 14 2.3 Beef Supply Chain 16 2.4 CAFO (Note: Courtesy of Beef Northwest) 17 2.5 Top Ten Beef Producing Countries, 2018 18 2.6 Top Ten Pork Producing Countries, 2018 20 2.7 Pork Supply Chain 21 2.8 Egg Supply Chain 23 2.9 Top Egg Producing Countries 25 2.10 Broiler Chicken Supply Chain 26 2.11 Top Poultry Producing Countries 27 2.12 Top Milk Producing Countries 29 2.13 Dairy Supply Chain 30 2.14 Grass-Fed Cattle (Note: Courtesy of Beef Northwest) 33 2.15 Alternative Meat Burger 34 3.1 Seafood Supply Chain 42 3.2 Largest Seafood Producers & Top Species 43 3.3 Photo of Crab Fishing 46 3.4 Marine Life Destruction 49 3.5 Pesky Fish 53 4.1 Fao Food Price Index 58 4.2 Facts behind Food Prices 59 4.3 Global Commodity Crop Production 60 4.4 The Basic Commodity Crop Supply Chain 61 4.5 US Domestic Uses of Corn 64 4.6 Uses of Corn 66 4.7 Harvesting Quinoa by Hand in Bolivia 67 4.8 California Wheat Harvest 67 4.9 Uses of Soybeans 69 4.10 Wheat Production & Change, 2018 71 4.11 Anatomy of a Wheat Kernel 72 4.12 Paddy Rice Production by Country, 2017/2018
(in million metric tons) 75
xii
List of Figures
4.13 US Adoption of GMO Crops since 1996 80 5.1 Global per Capita Fruit Consumption, 2017 86 5.2 Global per Capita Vegetable Consumption, 2017 87 5.3 Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Food Production 89 5.4 Basic Produce Supply Chain 91 5.5 Produce QR Codes 98 5.6 Fruit Juice Processing Supply Chain 99 5.7 Riverford Organic Farmers Logo 106 5.8 Riverford Founder, Guy Singh-Watson 108 6.1 A Modern-Day Chinampa 114 6.2 Seaweed Production Tanks in Garibaldi, Oregon 117 6.3 Large Commercial Bakery 121 6.4 Tetra Pak Packaging 124 7.1 Food Service Supply Chain 136 7.2 Growth of Food Services 138 7.3 Starbucks Milan Roaster 139 7.4 Photo of Healthy School Lunch 143 7.5 BAMCO Sourcing Philosophy 148 7.6 Food Service Ordering 149 7.7 Largest US Food Service Distributors 149 7.8 Restaurant Sources of Food Waste 152 7.9 Food Recovery Hierarchy 152 7.10 Google’s Responsible Business Framework 155 7.11 Lean Path Dashboard 156 7.12 Ugly Produce 157 8.1 Grocery Retail Projected Sales (US and Western Europe) 164 8.2 Share of Sales Among US Grocery Retailers 166 8.3 Fresh Food Display 167 8.4 Growth of Fresh Food 2019 168 8.5 Top Natural & Organic Sales 170 8.6 Retail Store Grid Layout 172 8.7 Big Box Store 174 8.8 Zero-Waste Dispenser 181 9.1 HAACP Prerequisite Programs 199 9.2 Beef Inspection 205 9.3 Gutter Oil Collection & Transportation 210 10.1 Buyers-Suppliers in a Food Chain 218 10.2 Cold Chain Functions & Definitions 222 10.3 Cold Chain Management 223 10.4 B-Line Electric Pedal-Assisted Tricycle with Advertising 231 11.1 US & World Food Donations 241 11.2 Food Distribution by Doctors without Borders,
Mozambique 242 11.3 A Bedouin Shop Owner in Za’Atari Refugee Camp,
Jordan 246 11.4 A Woman Carrying Belongings and Leaving a Flood
Zone, Gaza Province, Zimbabwe 247
List of Figures 11.5 Typical Disaster Relief Supply Chain 248
11.6 Humanitarian Relief Phases 248 11.7 Disaster Response Sequence of Operations 249 11.8 Centralized Versus Decentralized Supply Chain 251 11.9 Relief Chain Participants, Coordination & Collaboration 255 11.10 Projected Impact of Climate Change 259 12.1 Organic Food Worldwide Sales (in billion US$) 270 12.2 Leading Organic Food Sales Revenue by Country 271 12.3 Organic Food Ownership 272 12.4 Fairtrade Product Revenues Worldwide 277 12.5 Rainforest Alliance Certification of Four Main Crops 278 13.1 Non-alcoholic Drinks Sales Worldwide 285 13.2 Coca-Cola Plants 286 13.3 Alcohol Sales Revenue Estimates 288 13.4 Distillery Tasting Rooms 290 13.5 Beverage Supply Chain 292 13.6 Spirits & Cocktails 292 14.1 Drivers of Food Shortages 302 14.2 Food Systems 311
List of Tables
1.1 Global Food Consumption Patterns (kcal per capita per day) 3 2.1 Leading Businesses in Protein Supply Chains 14 2.2 Comparison of Animal Production Metrics 15 2.3 Beef Exporters and Importers, 2018 19 2.4 Pork Exporters and Importers 2018 21 2.5 Top Poultry Companies 28 3.1 World Capture of Various Seafood 41 3.2 Fishery Openings for Dungeness Crab Season
(Sample Season) 41 3.3 Fishing Practices & Impacts 45 3.4 Fish Certification Systems 48 4.1 Top Commodity Producing Countries, 2017–2018 61 4.2 Share of Labor Force in Agriculture, 2018 (in millions) 62 4.3 Leading Global Corn Exporters, 2018/2019 64 4.4 Types of Wheat 73 5.1 Top Producers of Major Vegetable Crops 88 5.2 Top Producers of Major Fruit Crops 89 5.3 Cost & Quality Impacts of Cooling Methods 93 5.4 Countries with Most Organic Producers 100 5.5 Countries with Most Land Mass Dedicated to Organic
Agriculture, 2017 100 6.1 Top Four Manufacturers’ Combined Market Shares by
Region & Sector 115 6.2 Top Ten Food Manufacturers 116 6.3 Sample US Environmental Regulations 126 7.1 International Food Service Revenues & Enterprises 136 7.2 Food Service Management Companies 147 7.3 Types of Off-invoice Income for Distributors 150 8.1 World’s Largest Food Retailers 164 8.2 Highest Margin Grocery Products 171 8.3 Store Layout & Flow Pattern 173 8.4 Consumer Habits & Implications 176 8.5 Factors for Supermarket Diffusion in Developing Countries 179 9.1 Major US Outbreaks, 2000–2016 189 9.2 Major Foodborne Illnesses around the World 190
xvi
List of Tables
9.3 US Regulatory and Public Health Agencies 192 9.4 Other US Agencies with Food Safety Roles 194 9.5 Six Sigma (DMAIC) and Six Ts 200 10.1 TOP ten Food and Beverage Companies, 2015–2019 218 10.2 Common Logistics Activities 221 10.3 Reasons for Logistics Outsourcing 227 10.4 B-Corp Certification Requirements 233 11.1 World Food Programme Data 240 11.2 A History of Disaster & What We Have Learned 252 11.3 Three Dimensions of Relief Operations Effectiveness
Criteria 253 11.4 Summary of the Characteristics of Humanitarian &
Commercial Supply Chains 258 11.5 Famines & Death Tolls, 1980–2011 260 12.1 Consumer Interest in Sustainable Food or Diets in
Leading World Markets 268 12.2 Percent Change in Sales Value of Ethical Labels on
Packaged Foods in Europe 275 12.3 US Consumers’ Familiarity with Food Packaging
Claims & Certifications 275 12.4 Leading Certified Food Crops 276 13.1 Largest Beverage Companies 284 13.2 Hot Drink Sales, 2020–2025 287 13.3 Top Five Beverage Sales by Country, 2020 289 13.4 Mindful Drinking Practices 290 14.1 Shifting Products & Locations 304 14.2 Agricultural Practice Changes in US 304 14.3 Conventional versus Sustainable Agriculture 309
About the Authors
Madeleine Pullman is a professor at Portland State University in Portland, Oregon.
Since 1997, she has held previous appointments at Cardiff University, Cornell University, London Business School, Colorado State University, Southern Methodist University and University of Utah. Her major research interests include social impact supply chains, sustainability and supply chain management, food and beverage supply chains, impacts of regulatory turbulence on supply chains and experiential service design. Currently, Professor Pullman is researching supply chains and the United Nation’s sustainable development biodiversity goals, social enterprise supply chains in food and beverage businesses, sustainability competitive dynamics and biodiversity management in seafood supply chains.
She works with many regional sustainability-focused food and beverage producers, distributors and retailers. She is the author of multiple books and case studies including Craft Beverage Business Management, Food Supply Chain Management, Sustainable Supply Chain Management, Restaurant Design and Service Operations. She has published in top journals such as Journal of Supply Chain Management, Journal of Operations Management, Production and Operations Management, Decision Sciences, International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Journal of Service Research, Journal of Service Management and many others.
Zhaohui Wu is a Professor of Supply Chain Management and Toomey Faculty Fellow at Oregon State University in Corvallis, Oregon. He is also an Honorary Professor at University of Exeter. Currently, Professor Wu serves as Associate Editor for Journal of Operations Management, Journal of Supply Chain Management and Decision Sciences, among others. He also served as visiting professor at various universities, including Aarhus University and China Shanghai Marine University. Professor Wu is also a receipt of multiple research grants from National Science Foundation (US), Agriculture of the Middle (US) and The Leverhulme Trust Visiting Professorship (UK). He is currently teaching and conducting research on supply networks, alternative food systems, agricultural cooperatives and informal economies concerning migrant workers and refugees.
Preface to the Second Edition
In early 2020, we were in the middle of writing the second edition of Food Supply Chain Management when COVID-19 struck the US. No one working in this field, neither academics nor corporate leaders, predicted that it would upend the food chain in a matter of weeks. Six months into the pandemic, we see how the biggest players, especially the meat industry, continue to wield their political and economic power to maintain the status quo. Other industries, notably the food service industry, are fighting for survival. Panic buying, bottlenecks in production and supply chain disruptions continue to reveal the strengths and weaknesses of the food supply as we know it.
In response to this watershed event, we added new material and relevant examples throughout the book to illustrate the challenges unveiled by the pandemic. However, we decided not to focus solely on COVID-19, since the sustainability challenges of our food system are longstanding, complex and global. We recognize that every student of the food supply needs a comprehensive understanding of the commodities and important food products in global supply chains with all the implications. The changes we foresee, including the growing awareness of food security, consumer behavior changes and technology trends, such as automation and robotics, are only being accelerated by the coronavirus crisis. Online shopping is transforming the food supply—and perhaps even the food system—in fundamental ways that remain to be seen.
Perhaps the most striking development is that the food supply chain is no longer invisible to the retail-buying public. From production to distribution, supply issues are front and center, becoming a pressing concern for government policymakers and organizations, at the local level to international spheres. It has become startlingly clear that concentrating solely on the economics of the food supply for decades while disregarding social and environmental impacts of the food system is problematic. Key players in every food sector wield even more power and the potential to impact internal and external stakeholders as well as the environment. Most of the social and environmental issues that we covered in the first edition of this book published in 2011 have not gone away. Owners and managers of food and food-related businesses today must address the social and environmental impacts of their products. This challenge is compounded by the competitive and relatively low-margin nature of the food industry. The coronavirus has proven that an intensely consolidated and concentrated food industry is one of its greatest vulnerabilities.
The food supply chain depends on abundant natural resources to function properly.
No other industry, aside from the energy industry, will face as many demands from the growing world population. We believe that it is important for current and future food managers and policymakers to understand the current system, structure,
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Preface to the Second Edition
institutions and economic, social and environmental forces at play. We have attempted to be as comprehensive as possible, recognizing that one book cannot provide exhaustive coverage of such a huge array of issues. Instead, we present a survey of the field drawing upon examples from the US and beyond to provide a broad perspective including the most current trends and up-to-date forecasts. We also added case studies of companies that are stretching beyond purely economic ends to balance the bottom line with social and environmental goals. We believe this is a shift that all companies will be compelled to make in the coming years, and we highlight some of today’s innovators as examples.
Purpose of the Book
Our main goal is to describe the current international food supply chain and its management practices from multiple perspectives. The first edition of the book focused on US food supply chains. This new edition takes a global perspective to include examples of international food production and commodity flows along with cases of food supply chain management and issues from many countries. This global perspective is timely as food supply chain managers inevitably operate with suppliers and customers across the world. Countries are more interdependent, and the implications are far reaching. For example, global pandemics, such as swine flu (H1N1), and trade wars between countries, notably the US and China, have led to other countries, such as Brazil, to step in to fulfill the meat demand that results in further destruction of the Amazon rain forest.
As university professors, we recognize the need for a food supply chain textbook that covers the broad range of issues within each sector. To teach our own classes, we have resorted to collecting articles, case studies and other readings to ground the subject for students. This book is a remedy. Food Supply Chain Management is a thorough introduction to the subject designed for students, food enthusiasts, potential and current managers, researchers and policymakers working in the food arena. It provides an overview of how each sector of the food chain functions, introducing the economic, social and environmental issues. It also invites further consideration and investigation through discussion questions. Updated figures, tables and other visual elements round out the text for enhanced understanding for all learners.
Chapter Overviews
Chapter 1 covers how the current pandemic and climate change have put food supply chain management at the forefront of consumer’s minds and explains the challenges the world faces in trying to meet growing demand for food with limits on production.
It illuminates the sustainability challenges in food supply chain management and covers the key food supply chain trends.
Chapter 2 covers animal protein supply chains, their structure and the major multinational companies involved in production. We compare the import and export markets for various animal proteins and illustrate the specialization and concentration in the industry. We consider the key sustainability issues such as the environmental impact, humane animal handling practices and the alternative meat trends.
Chapter 3 describes seafood supply chains and the role of seafood in the world diet and trade. As a new chapter to this edition, we cover main players and practices in the supply chain in both wild capture and aquaculture as well as the environmental and
Preface to the Second Edition biodiversity impacts. We address the challenges of regulatory and certification efforts
to prevent the collapse of international fisheries and other related biodiversity challenges.
Chapter 4 describes crop-based supply chains. It introduces the history of important crop categories and global flows of these crop commodities. This chapter also discusses sustainability issues such as genetically modified organism and food security issues.
Chapter 5 describes fruit and produce supply chains. As perishable products, fruit and produce supply chain involves sophisticated supply chain processes and technologies deployed in the food production and transportation. We also discuss several key sustainability practices such as local sourcing and organic production along with market trends.
Chapters 6–8 provide an overview of food manufacturing, service, retailing and wholesaling activities. Each chapter explains the economic importance of the sector, details its supply chain structure, lists significant players and assesses relevant social and environmental issues. Additionally, we cover emerging trends.
Chapter 9 describes safety and quality. It discusses safety standard regulations and government regulatory bodies. We use several cases to illustrate the importance of transparency and traceability of the food supply chain. This chapter also illustrates how the characteristics of the food supply chain structure affect the safety and quality of products and labor.
Chapter 10 describes food purchasing and logistics. This chapter discusses the different types of buyers and systems of different scales. Then it lays out the key topics of logistics management and emerging logistics practices and technologies that improve efficiency and sustainability.
Chapter 11 provides an overview of the food disaster and hunger relief supply chain management. As a growing area of interest, this chapter explores the difference between development aid and hunger relief and provides examples of how traditional supply chain management ideas are being applied to food crises today.
Chapter 12 considers how customers’ demand for sustainable food is increasing.
It surveys the current methods for confirming that the food is delivering on their expectations, including organic, sustainable, cruelty free and other labels.
Chapter 13 discusses beverage supply chains, the different categories and their methods of distribution. We look at the relationships between the producer, retailer and distributor and consider the emerging trends in the industry.
Chapter 14 concludes the book by summarizing the challenges we face in creating a food system that feeds the growing world population under the conditions of climate change and changing global demographics. We compare the pros and cons of commodity versus regional food systems, examine the role of food as a strategic weapon in world trade and consider how agriculture interacts with ecosystem services.
To close, we consider the role of technology in solving potential food shortages.
Each chapter also provides a detailed case study illustrating a company working toward improved sustainability in the sector. Each exemplifies the complicated range of supply chain issues that producers face today as they attempt to meet their business needs in a socially responsible manner.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the individuals who have made this book possible.
First, we wish to thank our project editor, Lynne Curry for shepherding us through this process, keeping us on our timeline, editing our work and keeping a positive attitude in the process. Second, we thank Shanna Lewis, Trevor Wright (Portland State University), Anthony Vitale (Oregon State University) and Fred Kepler for their professional research support, graphic talents, edits, case preparation, patience, commitment and key insights for improving the book. Third, we would like to thank the people and organizations that helped support this project: The Willamette Industries Professorship at Portland State and Roger and Sharon Detering Endowment for Agriculture & Entrepreneurship and Toomey Faculty Fellowship at Oregon State University. Additionally, we would like to thank the leadership at our respective business schools for encouraging our research: Pam Tierney, Cliff Allen and James Coakley. We also thank our publishing team at Routledge, particularly Emmie Shand, for supporting the project.
Finally, we give our special thanks to our families, Lily, Tim, Tristan and Islay as well as other family members and friends who encouraged and supported us throughout this effort.
August 2020 Madeleine (Mellie) Pullman, Portland, OR Zhaohui Wu, Corvallis, OR
Chapter Overview
This chapter, and the textbook it introduces, addresses food supply chain management and policy as among the most significant issues facing humanity. We look at the growing global demand for food and the related sustainability challenges. Then we turn to emergent food supply chain trends that may help to address these challenges. As never before, food supply chain prospective managers have the opportunity to guide food supply chain structure and production systems in a more sustainable direction.
Introduction
In 1950, a former JC Penney employee opened Walton’s Five and Dime in Bentonville, Arkansas. By reducing per-item profits and sourcing merchandise at lower prices than his competitors, this entrepreneur beat JC Penney prices and outsold the veteran retailer, founded in 1902. Today, Sam Walton’s company is the world’s highest-grossing
Chapter 1
Introduction to Food Supply Chain Management
OBJECTIVES
● Establish an operating definition of the food supply chain and describe the role of the food supply chain manager.
● Understand the growing demand for food and its environmental, social and economic influences on production.
● Examine the sustainability challenges in food supply chain management.
● Consider key food supply chain trends.
● Describe the impact of the pandemic on existing food supply chains and the implications.
Food Supply Chain Management
2
retailer and the original location is the Walmart Museum. Walmart has remade the retail industry by driving down expenses, including the food sector. Today, the company is automating its refrigerated and frozen food warehouses to speed delivery to its stores. It offers food delivery service for its online customers. And it is entering the beef production business with plans to remove middlemen from its supply chain.
Walmart’s growth parallels the story of food and food supply chains in the 20th and early 21st centuries: cost-cutting, narrow margins, market consolidation and vertically integrated production. Food companies all seem to be growing larger and larger with profits concentrated at the very top, while workers and the environment bear the brunt in many cases. (It should be noted that Walmart ranked best among US grocers in a 2018 Oxfam study of human rights.1) Critics say the system is not sustainable. Proponents claim that it is the only way to feed a hungry world.
In the broadest and simplest sense, food supply chain management is the process of getting food products from producers to consumers safely. In some regions of the world, the process is still fast and direct: grow it and eat it. But even in such areas, supplemental food from other sources is generally available. Isolated villages in Africa or India, for example, have at least one market that supplies staples, grains and refrigerated goods. Most Western countries rely on networks of producers (farmers, ranchers, processors and manufacturers), middlemen (aggregators and wholesalers), retailers (supermarkets, local grocers and grocery chains) and the infrastructure on which they all draw (transportation, information and communication systems, and electrical grids). Food supply chain management requires working knowledge of each as well as the business acumen to bring them all together. In addition, food supply chain managers must deal with perishability and short shelf life to ensure cleanliness and quality. It is by no means an easy job, but when it works, a reliable food supply is essential to the quality of life for people everywhere.
The Food System & Society
In 2020, the global pandemic turned the world’s food supply chains upside down and inside out. Many who work in the area have been concerned about the vulnerability of the food supply chain for years due to the increasing structural problems of consolidation, specialization and the resulting dangerous power dynamics. Additionally, the social and environmental problems associated with this industry have been building for decades. These issues became headline news as store shelves emptied and households on every continent had their first food supply chain lessons. As people wondered why meat, canned goods and toilet paper could not be stocked, they learned about specialized supply chains, sickened food workers, food industry segments such as institutional versus retail and many other issues we’ll explore throughout this book.
Many people began to stockpile food, learn baking and cooking skills and even grow food in their backyards.
The pandemic accentuated the fragility of food supply chains in every country where bottlenecks from a meat plant closure or sickened fruit packers could stop the flow of food overnight. It revealed the broad crisis of our food system and society—
some of the most critical frontline workers during the pandemic are the lowest paid, often migrant workers in food production, retail and delivery. The pandemic found many of its victims in aging, ethnic minority and low-income neighborhoods where people are subject to chronic health issues and limited access to healthy food.
The unfolding Covid-19 pandemic illustrates how the methods we use to produce, distribute and consume food reflect the values of society and spotlights the social,
Food Supply Chain Management economic and environmental challenges we face. It also points to alternative paths—
eating healthier food, consuming less meat, demanding policy changes to improve both food safety and security and supporting local and regional food systems. Some of these are individual choices (with far-reaching effects), while others involve society at large that could lead to structural, long-term changes.
Many communities have realized the importance of demanding products that support local and regional agriculture—the so-called “short supply chain.” But the global pandemic is just the most immediate crisis of many that we are facing, including climate change, population growth and future resource shocks. The challenge is to develop an action plan toward more sustainable food systems. In this chapter, we present the current context and issues that impact the sustainability of our food supply chain. We also delineate some of the sustainability challenges and trends and practices in food supply chain management today.
Growing Food Demand and Limits of Production
Rapid growth of world population and wealth in emerging economies means growing demand for food “and nutrition transition” or diet shifts toward high energy density foods. The world food demand is predicted to double by 2050 with a 50% increase in world population, most of which will occur in developing countries most significantly in Africa and Asia.
Growing demand for food typically means a diet with a higher percentage of added fat and sugar in processed foods, increased saturated fat intake (mostly from animal sources), reduced intakes of complex carbohydrates and dietary fiber and reduced fruit and vegetable consumption. Paradoxically, populations in poor emerging economies simultaneously face both malnutrition from food shortages and obesity from the food that is available as their food supply chains become industrialized. Table 1.1 illustrates the increase in food consumption in terms of kilocalories (kcal) per capita per day in
Table 1.1 Global Food Consumption Patterns (kcal per capita per day)
Region 1964–1966 1974–1976 1984–1986 1997–1999 2015 2030
World 2,358 2,435 2,655 2,803 2,940 3,050
Developing
countries 2,054 2,152 2,450 2,681 2,850 2,980
Near East & North
Africa 2,290 2,591 2,953 3,006 3,090 3,170
Sub-Saharan Africaa 2,058 2,079 2,057 2,195 2,360 2,540 Latin America &
the Caribbean
2,393 2,546 2,689 2,824 2,980 3,140
East Asia 1,957 2,105 2,559 2,921 3,060 3,190
South Asia 2,017 1,986 2,205 2,403 2,700 2,900
Industrialized countries
2,947 3,065 3,206 3,380 3,440 3,500
Transition countries 3,222 3,385 3,379 2,906 3,060 3,180 https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_foodconsumption/en/.
a Excludes South Africa.
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different continents from the mid-1960s to the late 1990s with projections. The global increase is about 450 kcal per capita per day and is over 600 kcal per capita per day in developing countries.2 However, this change has not been equal across regions. The per capita supply of calories has remained almost stagnant in sub-Saharan Africa and in certain countries the caloric gap between the rich and poor is increasing significantly (Zambia, Côte d’Ivoire, Burkina Faso, Iraq and Haiti). In contrast, the per capita supply of energy has risen dramatically in East Asia (by almost 1,000 kcal per capita per day, mainly in China) and in the Near East/North Africa region (by over 700 kcal per capita per day). Chapter 11 covers some of these topics in more depth.
While the demand for agricultural products continues to grow, the production capacity has dropped. There is little productive land left and as people earn more, they eat more animal products, increasingly sourced from confined animal feeding operations where livestock consume grain-based feed. According to Fred Kirschenmann, Distinguished Fellow at the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture at Iowa State, before the introduction of agriculture, the hunters and gathers extracted 20 calories in food for every calorie of energy they expended.
When agrarian society first appeared, farmers produced 10 calories for every calorie expended. In the 20th century, especially after World War II, farmers doubled, tripled or even quadrupled yields. But they produced only about a single calorie of food for 10 calories invested, and they did it using fossil fuels and chemical fertilizers.3 The critical ingredients of today’s industrial fertilizers, nitrogen, phosphate and potassium, are finite resources. They are all macronutrients, required by plants for growth. Food production will decline as shown in Figure 1.1,4 and the limits to production will inevitably have food security implications. In the coming decades, food security will be become a national security concern taking place against the backdrop of climate change, rapid technology disruption from farming to retailing and an emerging social movement toward sustainable development. See Chapter 11 for a discussion of the green revolution and the worldwide rise of industrial agriculture.
Figure 1.1 Global Production Decline of Major Crops, 2010–2030.
Production decline of major crops worldwide from 2010 to 2030, by type*
-25%
-20%
-15%
-10%
-5%
0% Rice Wheat Corn Other Crops
% Drop
Food Supply Chain Management
Sustainability Challenges of the Food Supply Chain
According to the World Commission on Environment and Economic Development (1987),5 sustainable business is one “that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” This means firms and supply chains have social and environmental obligations beyond satisfying investors’ financial appetites. In food supply chain management, social and environmental goals are integrated with companies’ financial wellbeing because their economic activities are directly tied to the health of the land and people. Agricultural producers (such as Organic Valley, Nestlé and Starbucks) and grocery retailers (including Carrefour and Aldi) leverage this framework to promote a triple-bottom- line-based supply chain and marketing strategy. Here, we highlight three interrelated sustainability challenges concerning the food supply chain: climate change, pandemics and diseases, labor and public health.
Climate Change
One of the most worrisome effects of climate change for supply chain managers is reduced food production and corresponding food security issues in developing countries. Widespread drought in the Middle East, changing rainfall patterns and more frequent hurricane and flooding have reduced crop yield and disrupted production volume. In many developing countries, a small increase in food prices can trigger unrest and political instability. For instance, in 2010, droughts in Russia, Ukraine, China and Argentina and torrential storms in Canada, Australia and Brazil—all major wheat and grain producers—considerably diminished global crop supplies, driving commodity prices up. This had global consequences. The Middle East and North Africa are extremely vulnerable to fluctuations in food supplies, and price increases heightened the Arab Spring, a widespread wave of protests, uprisings and rebellions between 2008 and 2011 in a region where citizens were already dealing with internal socio-political, economic and climatic tensions.
Another consequence of climate change is the loss of biodiversity. Biodiversity refers to the variety of life on the planet, and it comprises genetic diversity (within species) as well as the diversity between species and broader ecosystems. During the past 50 years, human-induced changes to ecosystems have occurred faster than ever, and the world appears to have entered a sixth mass extinction event.6 (A mass extinction event is the rapid decline in the number of species on the planet. The most familiar is the disappearance of the dinosaurs.) This destruction has serious consequences as nature and ecosystems ultimately support all forms of life and civilization on earth.7 We can see this most acutely in the oceans with rapid depletion of marine life due to excessive fishing and pollution of marine habitat. Terrestrial life is similarly threatened by air, land and water pollution, as well as extreme weather and sustained drought.
Pandemics and Diseases
The US Center for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that three-quarters of the
“new or emerging” diseases (including Ebola, Zika virus, swine flu and coronavirus) that infect human beings have originated in wild or domesticated animals. Rapid urbanization of developing countries brings large population centers closer to wild species as cities expand. Furthermore, in monoculture-focused industrialized food systems, animals lack genetic diversity, allowing diseases to spread faster. And with a global transportation network, when diseases jump from animals to humans, they can
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then quickly travel globally through ships, trucks and airplanes. The COVID-19 pandemic arose from close interactions between people and animal species. It will not be the first or last global pandemic against the backdrop of industrial farming, urbanization and globalized economy and supply chains.
Labor and Public Health
Industrial food production practices can have a detrimental effect not only on the environmental and ecological health of the place of production but also on the health of farm workers, consumers and residents. Farm workers in both developing and developed countries are often low-wage earners. A Chinese laborer might make ¥30,000 (about US$4,500) annually. In France, farm workers can make as much as €20,000 (around US$24,000) per year. A typical US farm worker can expect to earn US$22,000 every year although their family incomes have not increased since 2009.8
In developed countries, because harvesting produce and vegetables and meat packing are labor intensive, these jobs are often carried out by migrant workers, often
“illegal workers,” who have little legal recourse for poor working conditions and low wages. These workers frequently face exploitation and abuse in every sector of the food system from slavery in fishing (Thailand, Taiwan and the Philippines, among others) and chocolate supply chains (Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana and elsewhere in West Africa) to toxic chemicals exposure in fruit and produce harvesting (US and some of its trade partners).
In terms of public health, consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the risks associated with consuming processed food and chemicals in food products. As we will discuss in several upcoming chapters, organic, pasture-raised and sustainably produced products are the fastest-growing market shares in various food categories. Chapter 2 covers beef, pork and other proteins; Chapter 3 addresses seafood; Chapter 5 discusses fruit and vegetables and Chapter 12 explores organic and sustainable food manufacturing.
In developing countries, changing diets and sedentary lifestyles contribute to the increase of obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular disease. The rapid industrialization of agriculture and entry of Western food companies and brands in emerging economies are fueling the dietary shift. In the developed countries, these diseases are often associated with low-income social groups and ethnic minorities living in food deserts (locations without access to food, especially healthy food; Chapter 11 touches on food deserts). By directly influencing what people eat, food supply chain management plays an important role in public policy concerning nutrition, health and safety and healthcare management.
These three challenges are intertwined. They demonstrate that social, economic and environmental challenges affect one another. All food supply chain management and operations strategies will have consequences on all three dimensions of sustainability.
As managers, we need to consider these challenges in our decisions concerning food and ingredient sourcing, efficient transportation and logistics, production technologies and delivery practices, among others.
Key Food Supply Chain Trends
Food supply chains are facing multiple trends which, like the sustainability issues discussed above, will interact to dramatically change the economies and lifestyles of most countries.
Food Supply Chain Management
Emerging Technologies
Many think that technology can save humanity from the many problems we have created with the current food system. Certainly, there is progress, on multiple fronts.
For example, data analytics and transparency systems, such as blockchain, help improve efficiencies and give visibility to activities in supply chain networks.
Companies can pinpoint the exact location of their products, processing and handling attributes, and storage conditions. They can also use data to anticipate problems and come up with solutions to prevent potential problems as well as develop short-and long-term supply chain improvements. These transparency technologies help to prevent fraud and improve traceability for products such as seafood, where species mislabeling is widespread, contributing to overspending as well as driving the extinction of many species. (These and other issues in the seafood supply chain are covered in Chapter 3.)
Gene modification has created new crops that require less water and can grow in the increasingly warmer temperatures. To reduce the impacts of animal agriculture, firms such as Impossible Foods and Beyond Meat have created meat-like products based on complex modifications of yeasts and vegetable proteins. These technologies are not without their downsides in terms of concerns about genetically modified organisms and extreme food processing, but some compromises may become necessary as the climate and economies change. And it will also become necessary to limit or mitigate their own social and environmental impacts.
Automation developed to save labor. Robots are moving into all aspects of the food supply chain. The supply chain disruptions caused by sick meat packing workers during the pandemic as well as a dependence on a largely migrant labor force encouraged the biggest companies such as Tyson Foods to develop robots with the capacity to debone the 39 million chickens the company processes each week. The meat packing industry wants to automate every aspect of the beef, chicken and pork supply chain but has previously struggled with steps such as fat trimming and other butchering activities that require specialized skills to handle animals of various shapes and sizes.9 Robots and other types of types of automation enable companies such as Amazon or Alibaba to deliver food products to customers’ doors quickly, a convenience they have come to expect. From picking grapes in vineyards and serving food in restaurants to delivering groceries, automated systems are currently in place or will soon be replacing people in most of these activities. This job replacement will have serious labor consequences as agricultural activities make up a large percentage of employment in most countries as shown in Figure 1.2.10 Extending beyond the agricultural realm to job elimination in other food-related services begs the question of where we expect billions of displaced people to work. This kind of immense job displacement is just one of the many social impacts that one must consider when managing food supply chains in the future not only with government policies but with company management of their various stakeholders.
Evolving Customer Channels
Consumers were shifting many of their purchases to online channels before the pandemic. But in 2020, online grocery sales grew by an astounding 33% in the UK, 40% in the US and 100% in China. In addition to the powerhouses Amazon and Alibaba, most major grocery retailers found it critical to create delivery platforms to stay competitive. The online grocery business will further concentrate the food supply chain in the hands of a few powerful companies as we discuss in almost every upcoming
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chapter, since companies such as Amazon will push price-cutting down the supply chain and will buy up suppliers and competitors. All food companies will be affected by these powerful players and governments must consider the impact of perpetuating the market concentration and monopolization of universal basic human need like food.
At the same time, many new specialty online food businesses have emerged to support smaller and more sustainably oriented activities such as online delivery of organic milk and dairy directly from regional producers and community supported agriculture boxes with pasture-raised meat, eggs, seasonal produce and fruit from small farmers. Similarly, online food companies such as Imperfect Foods and Misfit Market are creating new business models to sell damaged or ugly produce. These companies have a mission to avoid food waste which currently squanders at least 40%
of the food produced. Such entrepreneurial activities are creating new opportunities to address social and environmental issues.
Consolidation versus Regional & Localized Supply Chains
Governments and consumers are now keenly aware of the vulnerability of consolidated and specialized food chains. With four multinational companies controlling 80% of the sales in every food sector, this concentration of wealth and power has implications not only politically but in the related economic, environmental and social spheres. One of the largest meat companies in the world, Brazil-based JBS, has been found guilty of high-level corruption. It had to pay a US$3.2 billion fine for bribing more than 1,000 politicians across Brazil’s political spectrum, including three former presidents.
Investigators have also found slave labor practices, animal welfare and food safety violations as well as illegal deforestation contributing to the demise of the Amazon.11 Another of the largest four meat producers, US-based Tyson Foods, is under investigation for price fixing and is at the center of abuse issues ranging from water contamination to labor violations to animal welfare. These organizations have strong political ties and they influence laws and lawmakers across the world to evade the consequences of their economic, social and environmental damage.
Figure 1.2 Employment in Agriculture versus Other Sectors.
Number of employed people worldwide in 2019, by region and sector (in millions)
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Agriculture Other (Industry &
Services)
Food Supply Chain Management The pandemic exposed the vulnerabilities of the dominant efficiency-oriented food
systems. Food service experienced a 30% drop in sales, but the retail grocery sector gained that much. However, these two supply chains operate differently with different players, products and packaging, so food service products could not simply shuttle over to the retail chain. Additionally, the economic fallout doubled the number of people facing acute food insecurity according to the World Food Programme. Moreover, with pandemic conditions and a workforce dependent on migrant workers, farmers faced acute worker shortages, leaving many crops to rot in the fields while people went hungry.
Additionally, farm workers and food processing facilities faced virus outbreaks and work frequently stopped. As a result, many countries began to question the long global supply chains on which they had come to depend. Some are exploring the development of shorter, regionally focused chains that can move fresh (perishable) food faster with less food waste and a lower environmental footprint. With nimbler regional chains, there is less emphasis on cost efficiency and scale and more on effective delivery of healthy food in a socially and environmentally responsible way. For those working in the food supply chain, now is the time to think creatively about how to facilitate these shifts.
Chapter Summary
This chapter introduced the subjects of this book: the food supply chain, its scale and the thousands of jobs and people that make it work. Food production and food supply chains impact both the world economy and the future sustainability of the planet. The remaining chapters detail specific aspects of the supply chain as well as the significant food products and their respective chains with a focus on sustainability. We anticipate that food supply chain management will garner more consumer and media attention and will be a “hot” area for managers and policymakers in the future. This book is an attempt to improve the reader’s understanding of the issues and possibilities in this area, viewed from several different perspectives. We acknowledge the need for greater production and the compromises that our food system involves, but give equal weight to other factors, including food quality, access and sustainability. We aim to inspire in-depth studies of the dominant food systems to understand how they work, examine their limitations and determine the best way to move forward.
Discussion Questions
1. Should governments assume larger roles in creating sustainable food supply chains? If so, at what stage of the supply should they assert their authority and what practices should they limit or support?
2. How will climate change impact the development of shorter more regionally focused food supply chains?
3. What are the scale issues that some of the new entrepreneurial food startups face?
What does this mean for the expansion of an online business model with a sustainability mission?
Notes
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2 World Health Organization. (n.d.). Global and regional food consumption patterns and trends. Retrieved July 10, 2020, from https://www.who.int/nutrition/topics/3_
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3 Kirschenmann, F. (2017, February 8). From soil to sustainability. Slow Money. https://
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4 Farming First. (n.d.). Impacts of climate change. Retrieved July 10, 2020, from https://
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5 Brundtland, G.H. (1987). Report of the world commission on environment and development: our common future. United Nations.
6 Stockholm Resilience Centre. (n.d.). The nine planetary boundaries. Retrieved July 9, 2020, from https://www.stockholmresilience.org/research/planetary-boundaries/
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7 Kolbert, E. (2015). The sixth extinction: an unnatural history. Henry Holt.
8 National Farm Worker Ministry. Low wages. Updated October 2019. http://nfwm.org/
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9 Bunge, J. & Newman, J. (2020, July 9). Tyson turns to robot butchers, spurred by coronavirus outbreaks. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/
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11 The Bureau of Investigative Journalism. (2019, July 2). JBS: the Brazilian butchers who took over the world. https://www.thebureauinvestigates.com/stories/2019-07-02/
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8 Magdelaine, P. (2011). Egg and egg product production and consumption in Europe and the rest of the world. In Y. Nys. M. Bain & F. Van Immerseel (Eds.), Improving the safety and quality of eggs and egg products (Vol. 1, pp. 3–16). Woodhead Publishing.
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12 Euromonitor Research. (2018, March 26). Animal welfare increases in Western Europe https://blog.euromonitor.com/animal-welfare-europe-companies/.
13 AVINED. (2019). https://www.avined.nl/sites/www.avined.nl/files/antibioticagebruik_-_
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14 Franklin-Wallis, O. (2019, January 29). White gold: the unstoppable rise of alternative milks. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/news/2019/jan/29/white-gold- the-unstoppable-rise-of-alternative-milks-oat-soy-rice-coconut-plant.
15 Franck, T. (2019, May 23). Alternative meat to become $140 billion industry in a decade, Barclays predicts. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/23/alternative-meat-
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17 Kahi, A. & Thomas, B. (2008). Biotechnology in livestock production: overview of possibilities for Africa. African Journal of Biotechnology, 7(25), 4984–4991.
18 Landry, H. (2015). Changing evolution: how GMOs can influence genetic diversity SITN, Harvard University. http://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/challenging-evolution- how-gmos-can-influence-genetic-diversity/.
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