Some topics (e.g. "Music in Qualitative Research") are listed only once in the guide; others (e.g. "diaries and journals") fall into more than one category. Art-based research, ties to; associations, centers and institutes; computer aided data analysis; data analysis; data collection; Distribution and Writing; History of Qualitative Research; Attendees;.
Reader’s Guide
Ethnographic and Qualitative Research Conference Ethnography(Journal) Fictional Writing Field Methods(Journal) Film and video in qualitative.
About the Editor
Contributors
Introduction
The authors of the entries have also identified terms to point readers to other related topics. At times, we also relied on the expertise of editorial board members to ensure a high level of quality and comprehensiveness in the entries included.
A BDUCTION
A CCESS
Before gaining access to participants, the researcher must determine whether the communications on the site are public or private. An Internet community researcher can also assess privacy by considering the purposes of the site and the number of participants.
A CTION R ESEARCH
By the mid-1980s, a new tradition of action research had emerged in the United States, based on teacher education rather than curriculum reform. Action research is normally written in the first person singular as a reflexive account that contains a critique of the knowledge generation research process.
A CTIVE L ISTENING
Process Management: http://www.alarpm.org.au/home Collaborative Action Research Network (CARN):. http://www.esri.mmu.ac.uk/carnnew Journal of Educational Action ResearchJournal:. even neutral encouraging sounds like "Mmhmm,". all serve to improve communication.
A DVANCES IN Q UALITATIVE M ETHODS C ONFERENCE
A DVOCACY R ESEARCH
Like other forms of applied research, advocacy research is best viewed as a means to an end. The main purpose of advocacy research is to empirically substantiate the case advocates are making.
A ESTHETICS
The multiple forms and directions that all these inquiries can (and do) take are integral to the nature of the aesthetic as the capacity to perceive. Aesthetically based research, based on perceptual awareness, turns to the significant role of the body as a reciprocal medium for the negotiation of concepts.
A GENCY
Aesthetic research primarily considers the given features within each situation as the necessary place to start. Redefining reality: A solution to the paradox of emancipation and the agency-structure dichotomy. Theory and Science, 3 (2).
A NALYTIC I NDUCTION
The existence of the ability to redefine reality demonstrates that individuals situated in rigid contexts of social control can become sufficiently emancipated to think and act in a self-determined manner, that is, to exercise agency. However, the ability to redefine reality means not only that agents can generate new ideas, but also that agents can translate their breakthrough ideas into action – thereby triggering social change at the individual, organizational, and sometimes even societal levels. .
A NONYMITY
Znaniecki's view of analytic induction has been criticized by some methodologists as seeking universal certainties, but this interpretation is debatable because Znaniecki decried others' attempts to use induction to arrive at absolutely true generalizations. He emphasized that as long as human life continues, theories should change to reflect changing human conditions, changing human experiences, and (most importantly) changing human knowledge and understanding of the world.
A PPLIED R ESEARCH
Fourth, what is the environmental context that may be beyond the decision maker's control. These factors and forces can be used to guide the future direction of the system.
A RTIFACT A NALYSIS
During the analysis phase, both the context of the artifact and the context of the research must be considered. While the artifact should be analyzed within its context, the data provided should be considered within the context of the study.
A RTIFACTS
A/ R / TOGRAPHY
Thus, a/r/tographers must consider the conditions (relational forms of inquiry) and concepts (translations) that help them conduct their livelihood research. Living inquiry takes place in the liminal spaces between a (artist), and r (researcher) and t (teacher) and often arises from everyday life.
A RTS -B ASED R ESEARCH
Art-based research texts are therefore designed in a way that will promote a profound rethinking of the ordinary, the orthodox, the clichéd and the stereotyped. Within art-based research, however, radically different design elements may be chosen in accordance with their alternative research goals.
Touching Eternity: The Enduring Outcomes of Teaching
What, then, are the criteria for making this kind of judgment about the value of art-based research texts. This text can even provoke groups of audience members into conversation about Arts-Based Research———31.
A RTS -I NFORMED R ESEARCH
Methodological commitment. Arts-informed research demonstrates attention to the defining elements and form of arts-informed research. Central to art-informed work are issues related to audience and the transformative potential of the work.
Q UALITATIVE R ESEARCH (AQR)
ATLAS. TI (S OFTWARE )
ATLAS.ti's main strategic modes of operation are called VISE (visualization, integration, serendipity and exploration). Therefore, for simple qualitative projects with limited time available, ATLAS.ti is suitable because it is considered a relatively easy package to learn.
A UDIENCE
In addition, although ATLAS.ti is primarily intended to support qualitative inference processes, it is also sometimes useful to quantitatively analyze data using statistical approaches (especially with large amounts of data). Regardless, the directness of ATLAS.ti is its strength, as it is considered easy to understand what it does and how it works, at least at a basic operational level.
A UDIENCE A NALYSIS
Inevitably, the presence of a recording device will have some effect on both the participant and the researcher; thus, the central question is to what extent the recording will change the otherwise "naturalistic observation" in a way that has a significant effect on either the concept or the quality of the data. Although this means a loss of data quality, this concern must be secondary to the protection of the research participants.
A UDITING
Involving auditors early in the process enables them to provide valuable oversight throughout various phases of the research. Involving auditors later in the process can provide greater neutrality on the part of the auditor.
A UDIT T RAIL
Projects involving a group of researchers or a large-scale program evaluation may find the audit trail technique particularly useful in demonstrating accountability throughout the research process. Catalytic authenticity refers to the extent to which the research prompted some form of action on the part of research participants, while tactical authenticity refers to the degree to which participants (and stakeholders) are empowered to act – to engage in action, not just as individuals , but also as members of their community - with the aim of positively changing their circumstances.
A UTHORITY
This is not to say that autobiographical meaning is arbitrary, or that it is simply a function of interpretive biases, either of the individual or of the researcher. As the philosopher Paul Ricoeur argued, the hermeneutic process, as applied to the project of self-understanding, is essentially open and, at the same time, limited by the semantic reality of the text itself.
Negotiating Hope, Reality, and Ambivalence in the Face of Death
The doctor's honest opinion, supported by the declining test results, confronted us with the reality of Gene's imminent death. These stories create the most controversy among scholars since the emphasis is on the scholar himself and not on him.
A XIAL C ODING
The questions researchers are advised to ask the data when exploring a particular category are called the paradigm (a scheme to help organize data). There are those who believe (like Barney Glaser) that addressing paradigmatic questions prematurely risks imposing schemata that impede the genesis of a theory, potentially limiting what analysts ultimately put into practice. recognize data.
A XIOLOGY
One of the most obvious ways that values play a key role in research is in research ethics. If this is an example of the axiological perspective, value in action, then it should be commended to all axiology———55.
B ASIC R ESEARCH
What about the relationship between basic research and the social sciences and humanities, especially in the field of qualitative research. Both of these authors assert that the first priority in qualitative research is the integrity of the subject—analogous to the priority that quantitative-experimental researchers place on internal validity—because it is the basis without which everything else is irrelevant.
B ENEFIT
Humanities demand greater understanding: Tired of all the praise and money going to the sciences, arts scholars are out to prove the value of their work. The Globe and Mail, p. 2006).Sociology for changing the world: Social movements/social research.Halifax, Canada: Fernwood. It is acceptable to advise participants that not all benefits can be anticipated at the time of research.
B IAS
The real imperative is for researchers to be aware of their values and aptitudes and to recognize them as inseparable from the research process. Although many of the social sciences strive for objectivity, social scientists must recognize their own subjectivity in the research process.
B IOGRAPHY
In particular, repositories have collection goals that often include documentation of the lives of lesser-known individuals and celebrities. In the United States, the National Archives and Records Administration maintains the archives of the federal government.
B RACKETING
The third central element is the researcher's application of the bracketing process to the temporal structure, that is, the beginning, duration, and end of the bracket. The fourth element is the disentanglement and reintegration of data derived from the bracketing process into the larger inquiry.
C APTIVE P OPULATION
C ASE S TUDY
Third, even positivist methodologists accept that case studies have a strong comparative advantage with respect to the. Alexander George and Andrew Bennett defined process tracing as a method that seeks to identify the intermediate causal processes – the causal chain and causal mechanism.
C ATEGORIES
The results of this categorization of categories can lead to the creation of themes, constructs, or domains. Establishing the Integrity of a Categorization Assessing the credibility of a categorization involves asking a number of critical questions.
C HAOS AND C OMPLEXITY T HEORIES
Research of all kinds has always required interpretation – the questioning of the procedures used and the conclusions drawn by the researcher – but such interpretation was against a (supposedly) stable background. It is possible to say that chaoticists study the turbulent aspects of nature with an emphasis on both accelerated development – the dramatic effects of small differences over time – and the interweaving of order/disorder in this development.
C HECKLISTS
It is narrative that highlights this condition, it is narrative that investigates this condition, and it is narrative with its interpretive methodology that brings its "truth" to a situation. Such truth is not provable, but is felt. 2004). Online social research: Methods, issues and ethics. New York: Peter Lang. 2000).Investigations.New York: Oxford University Press.
C LINICAL R ESEARCH
Therefore, it is important for the researcher to be clear about which anchor points are being studied. Finally, in preparing a report of findings, the researcher must consider the potential long-term impacts of the study.
C LOSED Q UESTION
C O -C ONSTRUCTED N ARRATIVE
Each person's views and actions influence those of the other, and the joint activity and mutual identification that result (or do not develop) become part of the relationship. Leeds-Hurwitz (ed.), Communication as a social construct: social approaches to the study of interpersonal interaction (pp. 201–213).
C ODES AND C ODING
A number of researchers suggest asking questions of the data to help identify ideas and concepts of interest, such as the following: What is going on. It is through repeated review and coding of the data that links are created between different codes and relationships between categories begin to solidify.
C ODING F RAME
These can be integrated and further reduced and subsumed into a more general abstract category, types of support, which includes subcategories of support such as community, family, and government. Connections and ideas about the role that different types of support might play in the lives of spouses of incarcerated individuals and the impact that different types of support might have on their outcomes can then continue.
C OGNITIVE I NTERVIEW
It is based on a shared commitment to further the knowledge of the individual and the knowledge of the collective. It is important to note that research reciprocity is based on equity, not equality.
C OLLAGE
While the artistic process may be more emergent than intentional, the intuitive choices are part of the evocative meaning-making structure. In "What is the fine line?" Six actors read a list of expressions used by youth and adults that encourage or discourage sexual activity among teens.
Textual Collage—An Example
1999, April).Arts-based representation in qualitative research: Collage as a contextualizing analytic strategy.Paper presented at the annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada. 2006, April).Exploring collage as a method for researching multicultural lives.Paper presented at annual conference of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
C OMMUNITY -B ASED R ESEARCH
In community-based research events, both the researcher and the participants are collaborators in the research project. Who participates in the collaboration depends on the context, the problem being investigated and the inclusiveness of the research participants.
C OMPARATIVE A NALYSIS
C OMPARATIVE R ESEARCH
This contrasts with the more quantitative, variable-oriented approach, which emphasizes the search for parsimony (ie, statistical explanations of variance in many cases using only a few variables or characteristics). More positivist and quantitative nomothetic conceptions of causation, such as those based on David Hume and 102———Comparative Research.
C OMPUTER -A SSISTED D ATA A NALYSIS
Comparison points that emerge during review of data documents can also be added. Memos that are written alongside text sections can be retrieved as users review codes and cases.
C ONCEPT M APPING
Computer Assisted Qualitative Data Analysis Networking Project (CAQDAS): http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk ResearchTalk, Inc.: http://www.researchtalk.com. ATLAS.ti: http://www.atlasti.com DICTION: http://dictionsoftware.com Etnograf: http://www.qualisresearch.com.
C ONCEPTUAL O RDERING
When the researcher is interested in comparing multiple cases, a conceptually ordered cross-case representation can be useful. Selected participants may also be asked to review some of the coding and meaning-making processes to determine whether the researcher's interpretations are consistent with their own perceptions.
C ONFLICT OF I NTEREST
Reliability and objectivity are measures of the accuracy of the truth or meaning expressed in the study. Readers should be able to effectively apply research knowledge in different contexts.
C ONSTANT C OMPARISON
A grounded theory is verified by its acceptance by the target population, but by comparing new knowledge with existing theory, the researcher can place it or his theory within the context of knowledge development. For example, in the fire study, under the unrelated ritual, Stern and Kerry grouped memos about how friends and acquaintances initially expressed concern but then tried to “make it better” by pointing out the advantage of having “ all new things" when what were the victims needed people to help compile the extensive lists of burned items required by their insurance companies and sympathetic ears ready to listen to their tales of grief over the loss of their possessions precious, such as "grandmother's quilt brought from the old country." . and their places of comfort and safety—their homes.
Analysis of Rituals
Whether using one of the various computer programs available or the original manual method, sorting involves constantly comparing memos to determine how the labyrinth of data connects to form an integrated grounded theory. Writing up a grounded theory should engage readers, help them understand the theory, and illuminate for them how the theory relates to their work and lives.
Used in Restructuring Life After Home Loss by Fire
The goal of human science is to understand the meaning people give to their experiences. Along with methodological developments in the constructivist paradigm, there is an ongoing philosophical exploration of the nature of constructivism.
C ONTENT A NALYSIS
This practice is related to the need to remain faithful to the source of the text. Here, the very rationale for research is that people will not be aware of the context. in terms of which their actions can be properly understood.
C ONTEXT -C ENTERED K NOWLEDGE
Similarly, researchers using critical race theory as a theoretical framework draw on the context of the project to explore and remedy issues related to race, racism, and other forms of marginalization that intersect with race. Very often, researchers using critical race theory draw on contextual knowledge as a means of illuminating both inequality and responses to inequality.
C ONVENIENCE S AMPLE
How much of a researcher's contribution to generating the talk should be included in reports. Such understanding will firstly be based on the researcher's membership knowledge as, one might say, a "cultural colleague" of the speakers.
C ORE C ATEGORY
The first form of counternarrative challenges modernist grand narratives that position the West at the pinnacle of development and civilization, casting Western ideals and knowledge as irrefutable representations of human knowledge and experience. A second form of counternarrative opposes undisputed narratives or "official stories" that are sometimes supported by undisputed "scientific" evidence or conventional wisdom—that state "truths."
C OVERT O BSERVATION
C OVERT R ESEARCH
However, researchers can openly access a group or an individual and still conduct research covertly. Therefore, researchers usually choose to conduct covert research to ensure that participants do not change their behavior significantly;
C REATIVE W RITING
Again, the creativity is in the form of presentation and from the selection of the excerpts read by the participants on stage. Creative nonfiction is the most frequent genre of creative writing used in the representation of qualitative research.
Fraternity Bar in Athens, Georgia
The application of the acting genre of creative writing in qualitative research usually takes the form of reader's theater, where participants present data (from interviews, observations and documents) in sequence, standing or sitting, dressed in black, on a stage with their manuscript in folders, reading on a dramatic way. Creative non-fiction is also called journalistic and takes the form of an essay based on researched material.
C REDIBILITY
Angles: Look at data from different perspectives and viewpoints to get a holistic picture of the environment. Member checking: Use participants to ensure that data analysis is accurate and consistent with their beliefs and perceptions of the context under study.
C RITICAL A CTION R ESEARCH
Examples of Critical Action Research Critical Action Research is routinely conducted in many different fields of study. Marion Walton and Arlene Archer used a critical action research framework to examine an academic literacy curriculum.
C RITICAL A RTS -B ASED I NQUIRY
It therefore follows that there are no prescribed methods for conducting critical art-based inquiry. Ethics of Critical Arts-Based Inquiry With the new paradigm of community-based research, the values behind reporting conventions have evolved.
C RITICAL D ISCOURSE A NALYSIS
Studies focus on the discursive manifestations of (hegemonic) oppression within a particular network of practices such as education or the media. Studies looking at conversational interaction will have additional analytical dimensions such as turn taking, interruptions and the role of nonverbal cues.
C RITICAL E THNOGRAPHY
Applied to critical ethnographic analysis, this process involves finding new premises to explain what happened in the rich spot and why. Second, many critical ethnographic projects have been criticized as being too site-specific; that is, they focused on the local environment, such as the school, 150———Critical Ethnography.
Using Critical Ethnography in Work With Welfare Recipients
Habermas exposed the obvious weakness of hermeneutics – the inability to take social power seriously enough. Based on a phenomenology that captures all interpretive encounters—not just those that end in shared substantive consensus—the projection of one's own background beliefs that one takes to be true is subject to constant scrutiny, often resulting in the articulation of differences regarding critical hermeneutics———153.
C RITICAL H UMANISM
Despite this truth, critical humanism does not remain agnostic about the social implications of conceiving human identity in terms of free self-creation. Well-understood critical humanism does not impose any particular form of historical development on different peoples, though it does argue against any kind of institution that relies on preventing the full and free development of human potential for all.
C RITICAL I NCIDENT T ECHNIQUE
Studies into the reliability and validity of the critical incident technique.Journal of Applied Psychology April).The critical incident technique:. A description of the method. Paper presented at the Southern Speech Communication annual meeting.
C RITICAL P RAGMATISM
Participant observation and life history research – the methods favored by most social researchers influenced by pragmatism – require that research-driven knowledge is not guided by overly rationalistic, pretentiously unbiased, deterministic and atomistic models. Contemporary critical pragmatists such as Dorothy Smith have adopted a view of knowledge based on embodied situated forms of experience of the world.
C RITICAL R ACE T HEORY
A third example of interest convergence can be found in the history of Martin Luther King Jr. Critical studies in whiteness is also an emerging field of study in the social sciences.
C RITICAL R EALISM
In the realm of reality, critical realism views behavior as influenced by agency as well as structural factors. Critical realism is particularly suited to exploring research questions related to understanding complexity.
C RITICAL R ESEARCH
