Chapter 2: Developments in Design Research Methods – an overview through
2.7 The Participatory Design Research
Participatory design covers the right side of Sanders’s graph space (refer Figure 2.1).
Participatory design has its roots in Scandinavia. Originated in 1970s, as Scandinavian Legacy, people could democratically participate in implementation of new technology at the workplace thereby developing new systems for the workspace to increase productivity. It was then research-led and later it became design led. It became a subject of great interest, Shuler and Namioka (Schuler & Namioka, 1993) wrote a book on Participatory Design in 1993 presenting the principles and practices of the field.
During those years and early 2000s, as represented by the horizontal dimension (Figure 2.1), the participatory design paradigm, considers the user as an active partner in the
Fuzzy Front End of design process rather than a subject, informant or mere respondent.
Participatory design is an emerging domain of design research that is not only of greater interest to the academic design research community but also to design practitioners involved in the development of human-centered products, systems, services and/or environments.
In that direction, over the years many methods of engaging users in participatory settings came into being for co-designing activities. Users were now seen as potential partner in the design and development. Thinking tools (Ehn & Kyng, 1991), user dialogue (Jacob Buur & Bagger, 1999) were some initial efforts towards the contributions of ordinary users in the design of products and services. From the literature of participatory research, one also finds, Buur and Andreason describing modelling as an important tool for designing or communicating with others (J Buur &
Andreasen, 1989). A dynamic questionnaire methodology (Huang & Krawczyk, 2007) generates design options based on the client’s needs and available modular components from selected product suppliers. This makes it possible to simulate the final design before processing orders for assembling and manufacturing entailing mass customization in a collaborative manner.
Engaging users through prototyping tools has been considered as an important method for active integration of the users in participatory design of products and services.
Participatory way of designing newer software applications or hardware features can use
‘prototypes’ alongside the applications or hardware already available in the mass manufactured products. This integration engages users in co-designing/co-developing features for products and services as exemplified in a case of participatory design of software application for cars (Hoffmann, Leimeister, & Krcmar, 2010).
Taking forward from the currently practiced participatory design approaches, meta- design (Fischer & Giaccardi, 2006) goes beyond the notion of original system design. It embraces a process, by virtue of which, role of users as co-designers does not end with end of design lead time but continues for entire existence of the system. As a new mindset, meta-design shifted control from designers to users and empowered users to
continuously create and contribute their own aspirations and visions for existence of system.
In 2000s the discipline gained popularity as more and more products and services related companies started to find this approach useful in their practice. Not to mention brain storming and synectics (Gordon, 1961) techniques also started to gain popularity in corporate and academic set ups. In 2012, Elizabeth Sanders and Jan Stappers authored a long awaited comprehensive book on participatory design research- Convivial Toolbox (L. Sanders & Stappers, 2012). With over 50 contributions from researchers/practitioners around the world, the book covers the underlying principles of generative design research, presents case studies and importantly presents methods and techniques of participatory design research.
Following section will explain about generative design research that brings people directly into the design process to ensure that manufacturers meet their deeper aspirations for the future. Chapter 3 will discuss in details about the methods employed in conducting and analysis of generative research.
2.7.1 Generative Design Research
Designers are increasingly paying importance to contextual information in the design process to make products effective for functional and emotional needs (Bodker, 2000), (Mattelmaki & Battarbee, 2002), (Grudin & Pruitt, 2002). Sanders defines context as ‘all factors that influence the experience of a product use’(Visser, Stappers, van der Lugt, &
Sanders, 2005, p. 121). In order to explore contexts, generative techniques (P J Stappers
& Sanders, 2003) are used. Effective use of these techniques help user-participants elicit their emotional responses and deep aspirations. Information gained from user participants can be in the form of explanation of context, anecdotes, stories that are deeply connected with users’ memories and experiences around the given product or system.
A key feature of participatory design is the use of physical artefacts which serve as thinking tools (Ehn & Kyng, 1991) during the design process. These artefacts help the user to articulate their thoughts and communicate their ideas and concepts with the designer without the need to know complex design terminology.
It was in 1990s, to uncover what people would know, feel and dream that Sanders introduced generative techniques (P J Stappers & Sanders, 2003). The experiential knowledge people possess is mainly tacit (Polayni & Gloucester, 1983) and latent. Such knowledge is very difficult to express in words even though people can act upon it.
Projective techniques would provide a view into future states of people. These techniques can reveal tacit knowledge and expose latent needs (Visser et al., 2005). By using generative techniques, user participants are allowed to construct and then express their tacit and latent levels of knowledge about their experiences. This knowledge attained by accessing the unknown world of user experience is highly useful for the designing of better products and services.
Figure 2.6: Different levels of knowledge about experience are accessed by different techniques (Visser et al., 2005, p. 123)
2.7.2 Generative Tools Bubble
Generative tools bubble (E. B. Sanders, 2000), (Visser et al., 2005) is a design-led space in the participatory design zone. Generative Tools enable stakeholders to communicate their experiences in an uninterrupted manner. The term 'generative' originates from the fact that virtually infinite ideas can be generated from a limited set of stimulus items.
The tools themselves can vary from one problem to the next and can have many varieties (Visser et al., 2005, p. 129). The tools and techniques are important and often designed when there is strong understanding of the problem’s context. More often than once, use of ethnographic information proves to be the foundation for design of such tools. Since there is no universal toolkit for all kinds of products to elicit deep user information as stated above it lends us an opportunity to design toolkits and approaches for vehicle design endeavors (Visser et al., 2005, p. 138).
A newer definition of Design has much more humanistic and inclusive approach.
Industrial Design is a strategic problem-solving process that drives innovation, builds business success, and leads to a better quality of life through innovative products, systems, services, and experiences. Industrial Design bridges the gap between what is and what’s possible. It is a trans-disciplinary profession that harnesses creativity to resolve problems and co-create solutions with the intent of making a product, system, service, experience or a business, better. At its heart, Industrial Design provides a more optimistic way of looking at the future by reframing problems as opportunities. It links innovation, technology,
research, business, and customers to provide new value and competitive advantage across economic, social, and environmental spheres. (WDO, 2017)