Chapter 2: Developments in Design Research Methods – an overview through
2.4 User Centered Zone: Design Methods Since 90’s
Context of use:
‘If form represents the solution for the problem of design and context defines the form then discussions about design are not only about form but unity of form and context’. (Alexander, 1964)
People wanted to associate their identity with a product; therefore, they looked for more humanistic approaches. During this period, attention shifted to the communicative function of design from actual function of design. Object was dominated by image and representation. This movement celebrated eclecticism of products and exhibited strong relationships of objects with their consumers. In late 80s, there was a distinct shift in the design approach from ‘how products are made’ to ‘what products mean to end users’.
Design was expected to respond to the user needs, his context, his cultural diversity (despite globalization) and his/her aspirations by designing the context-sensitive and expressive forms of products, services and systems. Though post-modernism started to decline in 1990s, some car manufacturers like Chrysler, BMW and Volkswagen embraced the tendency of staying in nostalgic past, and being contemporary thereby appealing to different markets. One of the examples is Volkswagen’s new Beetle (Figure 2.4), designed by J Mays and Freeman Thomas.
Figure 2.4: Volkswagen’s new ‘Beetle’ (Autoblog, 2005)
wider range of knowledge domains of users’ interactions. Machine language, Psychology and human cognition influenced design methods in significant ways. Focus in products and product systems shifted from the physical to predominantly cognitive abilities. A new set of methods drawing from multiple and cross disciplines;
Information Technology, manufacturing along with humanities, social sciences and languages evolved. They explored user-centered parameters that may influence design decisions. It therefore became important to engage users at the beginning of the design process and at the stage of validation and evaluation. This has led to the developments and practice of design methods that engage the end user directly at the Fuzzy Front End of the design process. Methods that explore both design approaches ‘for the users’ and
‘with the users’.
2.4.1 Investigating Design Situations
For a designer to initiate creative activity and design products, he/she is typically presented criteria that speak for observable, physiological, ergonomic, psychological user needs. For the products to meet exact user requirements, user centered design process came into forefront. Because such methods needed specialized skills and knowledge, design research methods tried to latch on already set ways of gathering such information.
To explore user requirements specifically known only to users; structured, semi- structured and open ended user interviews started to be used (Jones, 1992). Coupled with unobtrusive observational study of users in users’ scenarios, above mentioned methods have been yielding an illuminating look into user needs. It was also required to understand the behavior of people to understand implicit aspirations there was introduced the field of Applied Ethnography. In the larger sense, ethnography involves observing societies and cultural phenomena. In terms of design research, Ethnography involves observing user behavior in a specific environment relevant to the design problem.
When a large population of users is expected to provide usable information for understanding their needs, questionnaires became standard practice. In this objective study, researchers would reach out to a large number of people who have rapid access to
the kinds of information critical for design decisions. Analysis is mainly through quantitative statistical method. In 1980s, qualitative methods like opinion scaling method- Osgood Semantic Differential (Hill, Osgood, Suci, & Tannenbaum, 1958) also became popular.
2.4.2 Investigating User Behavior
In 1960s literature, one finds mention of Human Factors or Ergonomics - to explore behavior patterns and predict the performance limits of potential users of a new design.
It became a field in itself. It had lot of bearing on cockpit design for vehicles and aircrafts, safety, etc. and therefore attained prominence. It addressed user abilities and design requirements of interfaces (the part of design that affects users). This field would prescribe limiting values, which must not be exceeded if users are to carry out actions required without error, injury, or discomfort.
Man-Machine System Designing (Singleton, 1966) gained importance. This was to achieve internal compatibility between human and machine components of a system and external compatibility between the system and the environment in which it operates. This notable field emerged during the early 1960s. Closely associated with it was Usability Testing. Usability testing involves a set of comprehensive test procedures, which test the products before its market launch. A small group of test subjects provide fast and reliable findings about how potential users could react to the usage of product or interface, how they would navigate through it, understandability of specific solutions, as well as the overall intuitiveness (look and feel).
As product development became more expensive and capital intensive, companies wanted to take less risk of failing in the market. One method that evolved was Focus Groups, a scientific method, in which a product in any form like sketch, mockup or computer models is presented to a series of potential buyers (carefully recruited) and questions them from various perspectives.
Focus groups also known as Product Clinics are undertaken with carefully pre-selected users who can provide reliable results using relatively small random samples (of five to eight subjects). The questions aim to elicit the subjects' response to different aspects of design, such as its market prospects, uniqueness, and the way it fits into the subject's
sphere of life. Subjective reactions such as impressions of material and surface qualities, smells and other such reactions are also important in driving the design process forward. Designs are judged in their respective contexts. These contexts are also generated to obtain adequate responses from the subjects. This method called Auto- clinic has been used quite well in the automotive domain. It helps them to keep their products refined and apt for the target market. Automotive products are expensive to develop and produce, therefore focus groups work brilliantly in this scenario
2.4.3 Contextual Enquiry
Chronologically located in 1997, Contextual Enquiry (Beyer & Holtzblatt, 1998) involves the designer observing and discussing with the user in their natural environment for designing purpose of a specific product, be it their home or workplace.
This method allows the designer to understand not just the user, but also the environment in which he or she operates. By observing their mannerisms, the objects they use and the way they generally interact with their surroundings, the designer can get a clearer picture of the user's profile. Based on what they see, the designer can make queries or engage the user in discussions in an open-ended manner to elicit further responses. The designer can also share their own insights, which may prompt the user to think in more directions to elucidate their own requirements.
2.4.4 Lead User Innovation
Lead User Innovation pioneered by Eric von Hippel came to forefront in 1996. Eric von Hippel, professor of MIT, works with “lead users” (E V Hippel, 2005) in co-creative activities. Lead users are experts who first sense the need of a product/service, who have already innovated with design for themselves and more essentially, who are willing to share their knowledge. They do not depend on the manufacturer to make products for them. often these innovations may be beneficial for other users too. Therefore, Lead User identification (Eric von Hippel, 1986) is an essential method used by companies to identify newest innovations in their product areas giving them crucial insight on changing users’ needs. There are two contributing factors to Lead User Innovation:
increasing design capability of users is made possible by rapidly advancing hardware and software; as well technology such as internet which provides a platform on which
users could share their innovations with each other. Manufacturers draw satisfaction in decisions of mass-producing the design, which was modified by one of the Lead Users.
Patricia Seybold has been working with “lead customers”. Lead customers are small percentage of your current customers who are truly creative and innovative. They are most profitable customers but may not be the most vocal customers. They care about the way each product and service matters to them and how these products/services help them achieve what they care about. Patricia’s research spanned 25 years in identifying, interviewing, selecting, and grouping customers together to participate in Customer Scenario Mapping sessions (Seybold, 2011) for customer co-design session.