• Tidak ada hasil yang ditemukan

Investigating the Effect of Political Regime &Natural Resources on the Quality of Economic Governance

N/A
N/A
Protected

Academic year: 2023

Membagikan "Investigating the Effect of Political Regime &Natural Resources on the Quality of Economic Governance "

Copied!
15
0
0

Teks penuh

(1)

2022, Vol. 8 , No. 3 , 41-55

Https://doi.org/10.22059/jppolicy.2022.89540

Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Faculty of Law & Political Science, University of Tehran.

This Work Is licensed under a CreativeCommons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) R E S E A R C H A R T I C L E

Investigating the Effect of Political Regime &Natural Resources on the Quality of Economic Governance

Reza Bakhshiani1, Masoud Nili2*, S. Mahdi Barakchian3

1- PhD Student of Economics at Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran 2- Associate Professor of Economics at Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

3- Assistant Professor of Economics at Institute for Management &Planning Studies, Tehran, Iran

*Corresponding Author’s Email: [email protected]

Received: 18 April 2022 Accepted: 30 July 2022

A B S T R A C T

Is the type of political regime effective in shaping the resources curse &weakening the performance of economic governance? By formulating an analytical framework &presenting empirical results, it is shown that the presence of natural resources in democratic regimes has not had a negative effect. Rather, the quality of democracy has been a determining factor in the formation of economic governance. In contrast, the presence of natural resources in centralized dictatorships has had a negative effect on the quality of economic governance. But such an effect is not seen in decentralized dictatorships where political power is divided among members of the ruling group. The results show that in addition to the type of political regime, the type of natural resource is also effective in the formation of the resources curse. Sensitivity analysis indicates the stability of the results to the dependent variable change, the addition of control variables, &the sample change.

Keywords: Political Regime, Resource Curse, Economic Governance, Democracy, Dictatorship.

(2)

ﻪ*ﺎﻨ,ﺼ.

ﯽ0ﻮ12 یراﺬ4ﺘ/ﺎﯿ/

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ:

،

۳ ﺰ=>ﺎﭘ

،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤFG

.

۵۵ - ۴۱

Https://doi.org/10.22059/jppolicy.2022.89540

0 1

+ ,- 20

34 5 0 6 - 7*

. )

$

#P "Q R A1

# $ &

2

A*

S) / /

3

1 - . A AT. 2 & K ! "# $ $ 5 D )$ 7"# $

2 - D "# $ . A AT. 2 & K ! "# $ $ 5

3 -

. A A (. # 1 4. ./ U+1E3 1 O6 P $ 5 D .$

&A! ], ! * :? @A,

[email protected]

:4 . $ J.

29 .$ 1 1401

:O . 3 J.

8

$ $ 1401

< 0O

# S J H 1 & 'D &'$ , #)Z )#GA f 9 K &#< "'9

g g 8 h+ &V T I

0 7 &P i $#$%

T I & 'D +#-#2 & - &V C &2 S J )#GA f ZD 2 9

9

#) " , &2 +#-#2 '$ .+

"'9 2 # T I & 'D _G & O +#-#2 &#<

ZD C" .+

& 'D +#-#2 & - &V C &I &( 8 # 4 T% A # X I 2 ;2& ' S J )#GA f ' &V # g + 9 T I

&#j 7 C+ 9 N# N2 D &< Z, # # X I 2 ;2&

. 9 0 7 1 + i

"'9 ;# )#GA fG H C # S J H 2 .+ &V f 9 K &#<

"#$%

&#5 0 ;( C &#5 &##5 +G i K &@ # +# D .+ &##5 >& 2

! "

.

; W]

: . % 5 ' ; . ' ' 2 W 5J a , ; ); P i

(3)

. # . . g)\r % a 4 % '% @ $% +. ' 2 W ' 5 \)Qt a < &

» ,

\)Qt a « & ) '% \)Qt a & 1 )W $ y , q W& )@ $ > ; t ' , )

F ) ' %' .1; ! O % W +$&m#

$ % ) C 4 J

)

Sachs, & Warner, 2001

g\0 (

;

<

)

Gylfason, 2001

‹ ( ) #

;

% "O )

Gylfason, & Zoega, 2006

1 % & ( )

Auty & Gelb, 2001

4 ; (

1; , ‚ / a , # $' ?5, $% . &

) % & & `. ; . 2001: 836

? 4 5 % $ % ) (

?5, G ! \ a , # )O

. . d : -!

$ T%' a

\)Qt 0

:*

F @ : -!

&

:* "

' 4 4 a

<

&

1 ;

$ :*

F% ? W )c 4 ;

' , 4 .

; :* ' a

\)Qt . 4

! . 1@ ' #

$'- ;' M

% '% @ ' ,

&R

h 5

: -!

•/;

.

$'- ;'

'' O

% )<

4

$& ) (2*

:*

1\ G

% -) f" ' @ .

&'

?

~ ! h ,%

&

P

,%

:*

1\ G ' ,

&

"

"# 1 W%

%' ' 2 W 4 ) !%

&

&%

\;

\ G . 4 .' ,

; ' l &%

F %' G a

\)Qt 1

]4%

> #

@ '

$

=1;

% t . : -!

$ T%' 4%

?G J 4 ]& ! a

\)Qt z 1

‹ 4%

& , ) J F% W

1 W%

1\ G

@ '

%'

$% 4 :$ .

) ; )O . 2001:

+ (891

$' . C

;

\)Qt

% ' d )+

Q

; P .1; <

4 )

& ) (2*

%'

a G < &

a

\)Qt

%'

<

\ G a G w $ A) & 5

r! $ A) %

&

% )<

%& !

$

%

' 1) $ )J (2* < & )

%

%'

% )<

4 < & $' 2 W a

\)Qt 4 ) ' .1;

4 ) 4

& )

<

(2*

g\0 P i ,4 T

%

> Q \; T ! h * & < ; g\0 ' @ . , '

1; , 4 .

k t ' F

$% +.

% '% @ 4 a

\)Qt

% ' ) t :) 4 1Q< J ' 2 W ˆ T

<$

&

1; );

$ BQ ). % ]4 T

. 1) $ < ; &

‰ ; $% +. %' . $'

\)Qt

4 ,4% &

. C 1; < ;

; .' . % ' T 4 . 4 4 %' & . -$

.1; '4 ' -) T & @ & ' +) 4 & -$ k G P- < <

l &%

a

\)Qt J % '% @ $% +.

1; );

' 2 W $ g)\0

&

P

\;

]4 T

•/;

!%

? W QW

% :$ . ) $ . .

a .' , < & ) 4 J %' F % "O ; $ T -) a W !

\)Qt

%' '%

& 1G !

. 5 Q ,

; )O . % ' )

2006: 1094 ' & (

/ % <Q $ )

% '% @ 4

;

\)Qt

&

;

% "O 5 -)!

%' 85

% +.

% + . $'

% '% @ 4

a \)Qt :$ .

-)

$ :*

G 2@

&

&'

;

% "O

&

%' ) T ! , . ,%

' 2 W & .1;

)O 4

>

,%

;

$' +

.

‰ ) `#

4

%' J . a

\)Qt

?)5+

ˆ $' +*

4 a ) , . 4 J . 1;

a

\)Qt

' &

,

%' . , aW &

a

? \)Qt )+

Q

`#

4 1;

&

C $ b ; a

\)Qt

%' a ) +)

, d )+

+) Q

$ +

$ .' , ) w y ,

$ T%' ; & \)Qt a )W $

h T

;

P&

‹ 4%

) t .' ,

; $

% "O

%' :*

F% ? W

&

-)

;

% "O

%' & F %' G

F '% &

M .

&

F @

% W ! ' 2 W ) C . .

.

%' F% G

! F Qd

%' )s

$ ' 2 W BQ

1) \!

$ O%4 A< %

;

% "O : -!

X. %'. a < & $% +.

,%

$ T%' a

\)Qt h

-$ : -!

$

! 2 1 &' ' ,

; ,% )d &

% "O 1 &' h O & & .'% 5 -)! & < ;

) 2001: 48 d & .'4 ; ‚ / a 4 % '% @ $% +. %' ,% f * ? 4 5 % 1 % (

1 % A)5 1 &' $ -$ : -! & F& d M' a 4 % ' ' <! ; %

$ > %' .

1 % ' ! ' \ : -! ' 2 W

$ . h 1

!T% . b$ & ' ! b$ ' 2 W '4 : m & .' ,

%&' %' 1 % ' \ : -! . , 1 % r! '% & +) !T% . ' \ a $ T%' l &% $

1. Rent Seekers

(4)

ﻪ/ﺎﻨ0ﺼ1 ﯽ2ﻮ45 یراﺬ7ﺘ ﺎﯿ

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ<،

۳ ﺰ?@ﺎﭘ،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤHI.

۵۵ - ۴۱

% @ F d ?) ' . •& @ ' @ . , !T% . :* ' ; :$ . z 1

a < % $ :* 4 !T%

) .

Murphy, 1993: 411; Baland& Francois, (2000: 530

. ~ ! $% . & 4 ; $' + \W & ) ' F $ + ) %'

> X .1; + \)Qt a , # )O ?5, \)Qt a 4 % '% @ $% +. @ %' % +.

% rJ & ' ' ?5, % ' 2 W \; & W 1) . J 1)5 ~ J Q ' 2 W 5J 1; < E&

< P G %&' ~ % +. ? %' .1; , T ' 2 W ' 5 d % +. %' \)Qt a

?5, % Q; ' 2 W 5J % W ' ; '% % ; ); $ *Q ' a! 1 %' \)Qt a $ T%' & $'

q $% +. ' 2 W %' \)Qt a d T . 1; ‚ t ? W ; ); ' 2 W : ' 4 J %' > ; .1; ! O % +. T n1; < & $% +. T b. J ; ); P i & % @ ;

% W rW & % # P i 4 % '% @ ?) ' E&

-. & % 5 ' P i ?) ' P G %&' ~ & , , ' % ; ); ' 5 F% i 1; < ? < &

5 T n' , ; ); $ $& O 2*, $ ' ; € ; a < F% W M , $ + '

aQ q T 5 .1; \)Qt aQ q [ 2@ %' \ :; # n \)Qt a d 1; ; ); P i ) # 1) ). d , # )O ?5, %' ... & 4%& +. \ a ) T n1; 1) $ % ' ; ); P i q ? \ %' \)Qt

& & a @ ' # l) )+)# ))Q P&' :* %' $ :; # j; # :$&m# %' n'% ' '

$ P i ; , O ? , l) ]&% P% C :* %' `|; .' , % P ; :* %' :$&m# i Q .' , ! \ l) $ ' ' & l) )0 ! ; );

% T 1); <J ?) & p b # :* .' ,

) # :* %' & ' ' % W ;% & z '% ))s & ' > . $ )s @ '&-!

% )O

.' , D

; ); ' 2 W 4 J F ) ' %' '% $ ?2! ; 4 5 \)Qt a , ! O F% G F \ / .1;

) <.R;T & ;% .'% ' ). \)Qt a , # )O ?5, %' ; ); P i : 4 J %' 2008: 229

%' (

) ) & ; # i \ / ' 2003: 205

% 1; % P i Q $ P i %' 1 % . ' ' + (

); F% W . *; # -) % 1; % $ P i %' . C '% ' +) ~ 2 % # 1Q< -. ;

P i %' .'% ' % W % ; ); % ) @ %' +) $ 1 % &

x * %' . % i $ 1 '& P $

b) 2 '% ' % F% W & '

a x $ & O \ 4 $ 1; ); x * & \)Qt a 1 % 4 ' ;

) ! $ & ) . . 1 ; ); & ' 2 W 1 4 % ' @ BQ 2009: 302

( % '% @ P . ' ' + -)

$ P i a 4 % '% @ $% +. %' h; % i $% . & 4 ; 4

* h * & ' <! : -! h

1 ' @ F% W ‡ J k $ . . ' % ; ); %' % -) a $ T%' ; ;' .' , ,%

b) 2 ' ; F * %' 4& )# 1 % - $ T%' 4 a $ T%' a 4 [ 2@ %' )O

' . 1) \! & ' <! ] <O . x x $ & O & %T @ %' \; ' <O $ 1@ ' # &

1 % $

1) \! %' % "O ; -) :$ . $% +. %' . , $ @ ' 2 W ,% ! h * & $

R;T & ;% \ / Q ) w $

<.

) 2013: 92 1) ). b$ & a q b$ F% W %' % ; ); % rJ -) (

j; # W ! ; . ' % W .1; < & ; . ' % C' % ,% T ! & ) ; ); f * $ 1 W% O

1) ). 4 ; ); P i . $' ‹% 4 %' \)Qt a % !& O .'4 ; >R@

% ; ); % i $% . & 4 ; M

a! h<. 1 a $ T%' 4 ' ; € ; 5 % i $ 1 '& ?) ' % ; ); T , % '% @ a % !& 4 %' % i $% . & 4 ; & ; . ' ) # 1) ). ? %' .1! $ * % ; ); & ' 2 W 2*,

'4 ; b$ ! % 1 % $ 1) \! + ) 4 )

Bjorvatn, & Selvik, 2008: 2320; Bulte &et al., 2004: 14; Bhattacharyya &

1. Negative External Effects

(5)

Hodler, 2010: 110

.(

) $ & % C 2010: 610

. % G %' . ) T 4T & i > A % (

; . ' 1) ).

F \ / @ ) w $ .`5 & '% ' $ % ' <! : -! a % !& , . ;T J A 4

+ ) )O%' & 4% Q . a 4 ; : -! \ A %' ; ); h)W% $ & O ' \ C $ $'

& O l \ $ $ T ! b ; & ! : -! ' )O

:$ . )

Bhattacharyya & Hodler, 2006: 1372

S ; .(

$ & O ; )O%' & $ 1) \! k G % T & , ' % ) @ %' % a 4 2*+ b ; & O $

& O ' \ : -! . h)W%

)O%' k G . a 4 ; $ -! ' ,

! :$ . $ 1) \! b ; & :

,% T ! h * hQ; . \; T ! h * %' ) . d T 1) ). & ; ); P i .' ,

. , , ' ' 2 W 5J BQ $' ' 5 \)Qt a % "O d C & ' 2 W

<+ + F D

+ ~ ! ;%

; ); P i 1) ). & q $'

?5, %'

?5, P )O \)Qt a , # )O

+ \)Qt a 4 % '% @ $% +. ' 5 ;% . , d %' ! ' 5 < $ T 4 @ $'

~ J Q ' 2 W 5J $' ?5, %' l! $% +. 4 5 E& % +. > X . , , ' 1)5

+ ! O F% G F \ / .1; $ T%' 4 % ' 4 ) @ ; ); F% W % +. %' $'

g * ... & f -J % # 1 &' ? ,– O 1; , b)< –

%' % ; ); .

>' ' ; $ T%' 4 $ *

1Q< % ; ); *; # F% i , hQ; ; ); $' ) F% W b)< .1; 1 '&

) '4 ; % ,' % ' ; $ 1; ); x * %' k 5 ) $ & , ' ' @ ' 5

Fiva &et al., 2018: 5

%' .(

@ 4 ' ; & 1; , hQ; ' ! A %' ; ); F% W -. P G %&' ~ ' $% +.

& G 2@ :* 1)5 ~ J Š 1) Q h<. ' ; $ 1; ); x * P W ' @ ; ); F% W $ T%' . ' 2 W F % 2 4 * q $' ?5, 1 )W y , q W& ' 1 &' % ) @ %' .

@ %' ' 5 &% ) $ + .' ' Q t † & > 5 ' % $ 1; ); ) )# P G +) 5 & ! : -!

P i & % 5 h* ' ! %' F% W -. .1; $ + ? W -) Ru&- & % 1; % $ $'

&' <) # # $ 1; ); x * . b)i ' ! a! S ; % ' 2 W 5J BQ $' 4 ;

1; ' 1) Q h<. 4& C O $ C ' ! $' 5 &% 4 ... & $ ;% > . •%- $ & a G )

Le Billon, 2005: 694; Weisbrot & Sandoval, 2007: 2

F% W b)< F% W -. .(

4 ' ; C

+) 1 '& g * 4 ) F% W b)< 4 % '% @ ; ); $ P i . , % "O d \)Qt a $ T%'

>' ' ; %'

$ . <$ a $ T%' 4 $ * ) < ) % & c& b;T . % /

; . ' $' •)0 (2012

x ) ; ); F% W a 4 4 % '% @ ?) ' , ) -. )c $ ; . ' ‚R/G %' . $ \

%' ; ); F% W . % '% @ $ ; . ' %' +) T% . & *; # •/; 4 g * F% G $ T

P i q .'% ' % W h* & O ' ! % ) @ %' -.

; . ' ‚R/G %' . $ ?) ' , ) -. $

>' $ 1; ); x * 5 4 h* & O ' ! ; ); F% W M -.

) $ . % '% @ $ *

5J 1) ). g)\r + F $ + @ .' , $% +. %' ' 2 W

P i @ %' \)Qt a % rJ $'

/W % +. > X .1; , $% +. ' 2 W 5J BQ $' ' 5 * )d % 5 ' $ 1; < 4 O %' G $ T%' < & bc%

' ' ?5, % G 2@ 1)5 ~ J J ' 2 W $'

O @ r ) F% W @ $ ,' # %' .'4 ; b$ ! % ' 2 W \; ) 4 &

•)$ . 1; , b)<

@ r ) . %' -) ?) ' ) $ .'4 ; '& k"J % r ; r 4 , ' ' &

?5, $ 1; , hQ; ) $ . . 1 J W 1) . J & G 2@ 1)5 J ' 2 W $' )O

) 4 ' | 1) \! W% r! A %' @ & \ G % g * $ :* %' G 2@

Al-Sharekh, 2007:

(6)

ﻪ/ﺎﻨ0ﺼ1 ﯽ2ﻮ45 یراﺬ7ﺘ ﺎﯿ

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ<،

۳ ﺰ?@ﺎﭘ،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤHI.

۵۵ - ۴۱

< ' . . % / $ .(10

) <) &

2008: 461 •)0 (

' ; ); F% W $' & b. J ' ! ) $ % 5 ' @ %

i %' % 4 ; a! 1; % Q ; ); $ x * b. J ' ! . 1; , b)< O . J F )$

)c $ % 5 ' I JR/G . $ % 5 ' %' .' )O F )$ r ) ; ); F% W , ) -.

>' $ 1; ); > & 1; , a 4 . J F% W $ % 5 ' @ %' ? %' .1; 1 '& $ *

, Š b. J ' ! B; $ P i %' J % 1)5 ~ J & 1; b. J ' ! % ) @ %' -. R . F% G .'

W 1; i % 5 ' . 1 5J %' .1; ; ); P i q 4 4% ~ %' P G 1 5J ))s < % t & a! B , r W . 1; b. J ' ! $ *Q ' & 2*, F % ;' ) ; $ 1;' 4 P G . . & 1)\0& 4 ' ; .' . % ' i 1 5J h W %' % 1 &' F% W

q $' ?5, ' 2 W 4 J %' .1@ 4 % ' @ 4 ' 4 ' \ & ' . f . ; % * O $ , ; T%' 4 & ! O 1;' %' % ' 2 W G $ :* > . F % 2 .' f . ; % - 1 %

A '- J & 1, ' & 2*, i < ' 2 W 4 J %' 4 ; 1) \! P 1) \!

w)$ & ' !

) , ' @ ~ J ‡ J 0

Karsh & Rautsi, 2002

.(

D 7

1;' % ) ~ ! f C% C

?5, %' ) . )s A ; ); P i q . $' )O

-. ; . ' ? , % , '% ; ); P i q % C . , % "O d a , # )O ?5, P 4 ‚ , :$&m# )0 ! -. )c % 5 ' & -. % 5 ' -. )c ; . ' P i q :1; u % ? W

$' 1) ). % ' \ d ? < % t \)Qt a & ' ' 2 W $' 1) ). . ))\ ) . )s ; );

) ). . 1; $' ' 2 W $' 4 % i .1; % +. $ b. J ; ); P i q < & T d 5 '%

1

' 2 W $' '% W 1 0 W 1) . J 1)5 ~ J $' $' ?5, $% +. %' % ' 2 W 5J % W 4T '% :$&m# )0 ! ;%' ;%' ' <O A 4 ' ; & u % %' =... &

' & c& b;T .' )O )

2002: 1298 4 ; ); P i 4 ' 2 W $' "# d ! . $' •)0 (

4 & )# & ' 2 W 5J 1) ). ; ); P i % "O d 4 G ! ! O i %' k $ :$&m# %' .1;

) ' & ), %&' &' 4 2013: 27

; ); P i q d ( $' %'

70 ' 2 W $' 1) ). 'R)

$' %' 90 G ! 4 %&' &' .' )O % W ;% '% 'R) 20

q d 1; , g \ > ;

) ' & ), . % / $ .' ' % W 4% '% % ' 2 W $' 1) ). ; ); P i 2013: 22

( $' •)0

$ $' %' \)Qt a )W $ y , . T 4 >& .'% ' 1 - &' 4 70

&

80 ' ' ‹% 'R)

$' %' ' 2 W $' 1) ). ;% 1;

90 %' -) ' 2 W $' $ y , q W& d ' , hQ;

' . , ,

&%' < . 1; 1 - ) &

S 5\ 1) ?) ' 1; 5 . 4 $' ? d –

; ); P i ' 2 W .' , ) . %&' &' 4 > l t 4 $' ‹%–

/ %G "

) <.R;T & ;%

A ; ); P i q $ ' @ \ / %' (2008 ! O i %' / % %' 4 )s

; ); P i q $ %' \)Qt a d \ / 1 T . $' % W \ / '% ? ; > . % )s d &

), ) w $ . . g \ / % %' \)Qt a & ; ); P i q ) -) : 5 $ )s A ' &

)

&%' v< > . ' @ / % %' (2013 & %&' A < & )s . ! O i %' 4 %&' &' 4

) <.R;T & ;% F \ / 4 & )# & ~ ! f C% C .1; ' %&' ? < $ )s 2008

), & (

) ' &

2013 ' \ ( :1; g \ ? W 4 ?5, :$&m#

(7)

! " #. %1' ) ' \ %' $' %' ' 2 W $' 1) ). (@ , ) ) (I

90 b 4 5 .1; 'R) ' 2 W $'

W b)i ' 2 W M \! 1)5 ~ J BQ $' 1; )J -) % # ' 2 W ,% .

% u rW P i & $' '

) .'% ' % +. $ ' 2 W h; ' 5 ? W )d T 1) ). . 1;

& > > . )s (GDP T%' )

> ; %' ; 1970

\ / '% 4 %&' %' % +. $ \; •/; (@ , )s .1; 'R) . 1;

$' 1) ).

,"O %' M \; •/; . O $' % W )d 1 T %' % ' 2 W 1) ).

) .' , T %' ' 2 W $' M Natural Resources

) \)Qt a F %' G 1Q< ) ) ( @ ' ( @

$' &' t 70

&

80 ) .1; 'R) Political Regimes

( $' %' ; ); P i q 70

' 1) ). . 1; 'R) $

. $' ?5, % T $ $' ' 2 W

) . 1; ; ); P i q $ \)Qt a : 5 $ )s (

a d T $' + ) . )@ 1; < & ; ); P i q ' 2 W $' 1) ). \)Qt

$ )s ; (X

?) > . )s ; :$&m# %' . , '&-! ' \ p 1); <J ?) k $ . , > > .

\ '%&T k $ .' )O % W ' ; '% p 1); <J

) '

1 ; ); P i q % C \ / '% (

) >& %' ; ); P i q $ } $ ' ' . ' , b)<

1 ; ); P i q $ .1; , u % (

(@ , 4 A)5 .' , g \ 4 )s A ' ; ; ); P 4 J %' ‚ / $

& )# .' ,

) ) & ; # 4 71

: (@ , (2003

»

; ); ~ J «1

'% $ % 5 ' 4 $ ; . ' A)5 ' 4T @

` r & f * T ! T ' 2 & F * ' 4T %' (@ , .' )O % W ' ; ); f -J ?)5+ ' 4T lJ 4% % ... & 4 J %' 1 &' g * f -J 1) \! -) F * %' 1.% + & ;

' %' 4 ) % +. $ (@ , . . 1

7 ' . $' ()2*

7 ' & Q % . 1

% Q % M

+ ) ' 4T @ '% ; . $' $% +. (2017

4 ) 6 &

7 f < ; . ' $% +. ; & % 5 '

b;T 4 & )# . , b)< -. )c & -. $ ; . ' & O &' ' @ $ ; . ' \ P O %' . , ) ' & c&

1266 : (@ , (2002

» 1 '&

2 $ « 4

» Polity IV «

. 4% 1 F% W a 4 1) )

; . ' %' ; );

% W ' ; '% -. )c 4 -. $ ; . ' A)5 & $ -. -) (@ , .' )O

' %' (@ , . . 4% % 1 &' & % # ) F% W 4 1) ). & %' F% W 1

7 % W

Q & ' )O ' ) # '% ;

7 +) % W % ' % # $ T %' . ' )O l \ $% +.

$ ; . ' $ ; . ' ; . )O % W -. )c $ ; . ' & O %' & ' h* 1 &' 4

% 5 ' +) %' . , ;' -.

$ (@ , 4 ' ; 5 ` ! ?) '

» $ 1 '&

«

r 2 $ % 5 ' @ %' F% W a 4 ? %' .'% ' & ` & 1 &' ) F% W a 4 : ; * )c $ . 1; . J F )$

); P i O &' A)5 :$&m# %' . , & -. % 5 ' ;

) f $ ; ); ' 2 W & ; ); P 4 J %' ! "# F% G F \ / Q -. )c % 5 ' & P & (1999

) ; O ) f $ .' "# F% G (2012

1999: 31 •)0 ( ; ); F% W $ ,' # P i $ % 5 ' @ %' . $'

# @ r ) hQ; ; ); F% W a 4 .1; , a 4 $ ,'

x * ,' # F% W ' ' ,

b) 2

>' $ 1 . ? , ) %& @ @ $ $ ,' # X. ' @ * % \ / %' f $ .' , '& $ *

% F % & ' \; < /W :. '%

Om & % ' ) & &R . '

2013:

$ ,' # % 4 ; & > | $ ,' # ; (33

$ ,' # %' . . ! \ @ $

. @ $

1. Politicl Rights 2. Executive Constraints

(8)

ﻪ/ﺎﻨ0ﺼ1 ﯽ2ﻮ45 یراﺬ7ﺘ ﺎﯿ

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ<،

۳ ﺰ?@ﺎﭘ،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤHI.

۵۵ - ۴۱

g \ -. )c % 5 ' i & ' ! $ % 5 ' ? , $ % 5 ' ; ,

-. % 5 '

i ! A ' ! A % ) @ %' -. R . % t F% W $ % 5 ' q %' . C . , ;' f < % 5 ' q ‚ / $ 4 2 %' y% Q <J & ~ %' P G $ b E% .'% ' % W .' ,

D @ "

4 4 %' $ T i '% $ (@ , . $% +. P BQ $ ' ' :$&m# %' 1970

2000

? , .1; ! O % W ' ; '% ' S ;' %' 'R) 102

) 4 . , % +.

32 % 5 ' % +.

-.

31 -. ; . ' % +.

9

% +.

& -. )c % 5 ' 30

1<) . , -. )c ; . ' % +.

) ' & A %'&% 4 & )# .1; , % 1; )# >& %' %' ' ; '% $% +.

2004: 135 ) ) 4 (

4 %' W 1) . J (@ , 1990

2000 ' ; ' 2 W $' 1) ). 4% 1 1) ). (@ , .1; ,

) ' %' % & ' . 4% % u rW ;' & `) # ' 5 $' '% W 1)5 ~ J 4 1 J -2.5 , 2.5

% (

' ' . . Q; % +. $ 4 (@ , $

Earthtrends 1); <J ?) k $ ) w $ .1; , %&T' O

)s p 1 &' +* d (@ , 4 < &

(@ , .1; , ' ; ' 2 W $' 1) ). : ; 1

b) 2 >R ; & , F @ M . BQ F @ % 1) ).

1) ). ; ); 4 J 4 ' 2 W )O

. 4% % $ 1; ); & W $' % " ; );

) 4 %' (@ , . % . -2.5 , 2.5

% W (

4 (@ , $ ' ' .' )O Earthtrends

) >& .1; , %&T' O 1

%' ' ; '% $ ' ' g)G (

W 1) . J (@ , ) ) >& g '% . $' % )s $ ; ); P i q $ A)5 %

4 1996 2000 4 1 &' +* d (@ , ) ) P&' g '%

1990 2000 ; T%' (@ , P ; g '% &

%' 1970 + %

# >& 4 T $ ' ' . $' , %&T' O2

) 1;

2002 Summers,

&

Heston ( .

g '%

) ) h) b+, P% C $ & \ a ? ,) -. \)Qt a \)Qt a F %' G b ;

4 %' % @ ' ( @ ) 4 ( & %' 4%& +. a ? ,) -. )c \)Qt a & ( 4 O 1970

1989

+ ' ' & $' ' ' 4 T $

) A $

, %&T' O (2014 1;

. ) ) b $ g '% 1 %'

4 %' % ' 2 W ' 4 %' (@ , 1950

1960 ( @ ) F '% & & F %' G q 1Q< . $' u %

' ' & , Q; % +. $ ' 2 W ' 4 (@ , @ ' , %&T' O A 4 T $

1;

.

>&

1 ' ' g)G .

$

&#5

;2& '

;2& &2

;2& &#j '

;2& &#j &2

X7

#@#

#) *&%

X7

#@#

#) *&%

X7

#@#

#) *&%

X7

#@#

#) *&%

2 D 0 I +#

#@ # ) 1996 - 2000 ( 31

-0.48 0.50 31 -0.16 0.64 9 0.40 0.59 30 1.30 0.79

+ 7. &V

#@ # ) 1990 - 2000 32 (

-0.49 0.53 31 -0.04 0.64 9 0.11 0.39 29 1.34 0.89

& 1

N @ ) 1970 32 (

6.30 0.65 31 6.75 0.71 7 6.75 0.72 30 7.82 0.71

1. Government Effectiveness 2. Penn World Table

(9)

X 3 +G #@ # ) )#GA f $4 6 4 # 1970

- 1989 32 (

0.10 0.11 31 0.07 0.10 7 0.33 0.29 30 0.05 0.08

+G #@ # ) ;2& )#GA f $4 6 4 # X 3

1970-1989 (

32 0.08 0.11 31 0.05 0.10 7 0.33 0.29 30 0.04 0.08

&#j )#GA f +G #@ # ) ;2&

$4 6 4 # X 3 1970-1989 (

32 0.02 0.02 31 0.02 0.03 7 0.00 0.01 30 0.01 0.01

) T I 0 B F 1950

- 1960 ( 30 0.46 0.20 31 0.39 0.24 3 0.40 0.22 29 0.56 0.29

H +

) >& %' '%&T p 2

; %' .1; , % ( ) >& >&

2 ' 2 W $' 1) ). \)Qt a b) < d (

h 0 ) w $ .1; % ' \ & \)Qt a T 1; h 0 .1; , '%&T ; ); $ P i d > . i h 0 . J%' .1; % ' \ & -. ; . ' & % 5 ' $ P i } -. )c % 5 ' P

% ' \ ) # -. $ P i %' ' 2 W $' 1) ). $' + p . ,

.1; -. )c $ P i 4

; %' .'% ' & -. )c ; . ' & -. )c % 5 ' ' 2 W $' 1) ). ) % ' \ F& ) w $ ) 2 5 $ ( .1; % ' \ & T } h 0 . , ! 0 ); O% -. % 5 ' \)Qt a :

: 5 $ d > . . 1; T ) p .1<) % ' \ \)Qt a } h 0 : 5 $ )s , ! 0

< d \)Qt a ; ); P i \)Qt a .'% ' 2 W $' 1) ). )

) >& P ; ; %' 2

, '&-! ); O% ; ); P i q $ \)Qt a : 5 $ } $ )s (

; & ' % ' \ & -. % 5 ' \)Qt a : 5 $ } h 0 : 5 $ h 0 ) 4 .1;

h 0 1; , ' ' 2 W $' 1) ). d -. % 5 ' $ P i %' \)Qt a .1<) % ' \

$ + d ) C $ P i ; %' .' ,

>&

2

\)Qt a & ; ); P i ' 2 W $' .

) 1 ( )

2 ( )

3 ( )

4 ( )

5 ( )

6 (

G B s&, -3/963***

-4/070***

-3/940***

-4/146***

-4/205***

-4/043***

(0/545) (0/538)

(0/556) (0/630)

(0/673) (0/713)

& 1 0/679***

0/690***

0/679***

0/701***

0/707***

0/703***

(0/069) (0/068)

(0/070) (0/077)

(0/082) (0/087)

)#GA f -0/871**

-0/385

(0/399) (0/457)

;2& ' -0/695***

-0/527***

-0/588***

-0/535**

-0/531**

-0/589**

(0/162) (0/179)

(0/191) (0/206)

(0/207) (0/225)

;2& &2 -0/722***

-0/720***

-0/762***

-0/717***

-0/713***

-0/759***

(0/140) (0/137)

(0/160) (0/172)

(0/174) (0/183)

;2& &#j ' 0/263

0/139 -0/050

-0/032 -0/035

-0/195

(0/241) (0/245)

(0/314) (0/316)

(0/318) (0/675)

)#GA f * ;2& '

-1/771**

-2/135***

-2/155***

-2/224***

-1/857**

(0/854) (0/738)

(0/740) (0/792)

(0/842)

)#GA f *;2& &2

-0/545 -0/676

-0/678 -0/218

(0/820) (0/843)

(0/847) (0/922)

)#GA f *;2& &#j '

0/025 -0/035

-0/030 3/242

(0/652) (0/659)

(0/663) (15/589)

)#GA f * ;2& &#j &2

-1/203 -1/294

-1/306 -0/629

(1/065) (1/075)

(1/082) (1/191)

(10)

ﻪ/ﺎﻨ0ﺼ1 ﯽ2ﻮ45 یراﺬ7ﺘ ﺎﯿ

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ<،

۳ ﺰ?@ﺎﭘ،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤHI.

۵۵ - ۴۱

:+9 ) W 1) . J (@ , ) ) $ ); O% P %' < & )s 1996

- 2000 } '% ; $ /@ .1; (

.1; , % - # ?@ ' %' h 0 $

*

**

•/; %' h) h 0 % ' \ 1 M' % T ***

10

%

5%

&

1

% .'% '

+ p % rJ . 1; -. )c $ P i 4 ) # -. $ % 5 ' %' ' 2 W $' 1) ). $'

; . ' %' ) w $ .1; ' . + % d \)Qt a )O ?5, %' . ))\ ? ; . ' 1) ). $

d \)Qt a % rJ & 1; ' ' 2 W $' .1; , q 0 % ' \ &

I=

) $ ; %' > . $ )s '&-! p 1); <J ?) 4

) ( 6 ) >& 4 ( 2

; %' .1; ! O F% G (

) 4 ) ; %' ) F \ < } 4 )s ( 5

) ; %' & < ! F \ < 4 )s ( 6

( 4 %' )s

, ! 0 ); O% ' 2 W ' @ ' ( @ ) F '% & & F %' G q 1Q< ' 2 W ' 4 •/; .1;

1 )W y , q W& 4 ?QW $ > ; 4 %' 1950 –

1969 4 T $ ' ' & , ! O i %' – WDI

+ p .1; , %&T' O ) >& .1; , G p d > . $ )s '&-! $'

3 1); <J ?) (

+ % < & )s ))s p ) 1 &' +* d (@ , ) ) $ ; %' < & )s . $'

1990 - 2000 (

) ; %' .1;

1 & . , '%&T \)Qt a b) < d ( -. % 5 ' $ P i } h 0 .1; % ' \

+ p . , % ' \ -. )c % 5 ' P i h 0 .1; % ' \ & -. ; . ' &

+* d $'

) ; %' .1; -. 4 -. )c $ P i %' 1 &' 2

h 0 : 5 $ h 0 '&-! ( b) < d }

) ; . , % ' \ \)Qt a 3

: 5 $ h 0 . $' u % % : 5 $ $ )s $ '&-! p '%&T (

% ' \ h 0 ; .1; % ' \ & -. % 5 ' P i \)Qt a % rJ . 1; ) p . ,

P i ; %' & ' . + % ' 2 W $' 1) ). P i q d -. % 5 ' P i %' \)Qt a ) $ ; .1; , . + d ; ); $ 4

) ( 6 > . $ )s '&-! 1Q< p 1); <J ?) (

u % % $ )s '&-! . $'

) $ ; %' < ! & ) F \ < BQ 4 4

) & ( 5 %' )s '&-! & (

) ; %' ' 2 W ' 4 6

); O% p .1; + G p ))s ( ) >& $

3 )s ))s $' + (

.1; % # w $ :$&m# G p < &

>&

3 < & )s ))s :1); <J ?) .

) 1 ( )

2 ( )

3 ( )

4 ( )

5 ( )

6 (

s&, G B -3/843***

-3/915***

-3/787***

-4/018***

-4/031***

-3/806***

(0/608) (0/609)

(0/630) (0/716)

(0/761) (0/806)

& 1 0/671***

0/678***

0/667***

0/692***

0/694***

0/686***

(0/077) (0/077)

(0/079) (0/087)

(0/092) (0/098)

)#GA f -1/205***

-0/874

(0/446) (0/519)

;2& ' -0/756***

-0/642***

-0/702***

-0/643**

-0/643***

-0/705***

(0/180) (0/202)

(0/215) (0/232)

(0/234) (0/253)

# &

0/081

0/094 0/140

(0/115) (0/125)

(0/136)

&(

0/039

0/073

(0/152) (0/161)

T I 0 B F

-0/350 (0/249)

X 7

99 99

99 99

99 92

1 72/720*** F

63/468***

47/219***

41/795***

37/227***

30/742***

1 2R^

0/800 0/805 0/808

0/809 0/809

0/809

(11)

;2& &2 (0/157)

(0/156) (0/182)

(0/196) (0/198)

(0/208)

;2& &#j ' -0/132

-0/216 -0/403

-0/384 -0/385

-0/277

(0/270) (0/278)

(0/357) (0/359)

(0/361) (0/765)

)#GA f * ;2& '

-1/206 -2/060**

-2/083**

-2/099**

-1/674*

(0/969) (0/838)

(0/841) (0/897)

(0/954)

)#GA f *;2& &2

-1/037 -1/184

-1/184 -0/561

(0/932) (0/958)

(0/964) (1/059)

)#GA f *;2& &#j '

-0/469 -0/536

-0/535 -3/338

(0/741) (0/750)

(0/754) (17/682)

)#GA f * ;2& &#j &2

-1/678 -1/784

-1/787 -0/901

(1/211) (1/224)

(1/232) (1/376)

# &

0/091

0/094 0/116

(0/132 (0/144)

(0/155)

&(

0/009

0/047

(0/170) (0/179)

T I 0 B F

-0/432 (0/299)

X 7

99 99

99 99

99 92

1 57/086*** F

63/468***

35/695***

31/597***

28/119***

23/917***

1 2R^

0/754 0/805

0/760 0/762

0/762 0/767

:+9 ) 1 &' +* d (@ , ) ) $ ); O% P %' < & )s 1990

- 2000 } '% ; $ /@ .1; (

.1; , % - # ?@ ' %' h 0 $

*

**

•/; %' h) h 0 % ' \ 1 M' % T ***

10

%

5%

&

1

% .'% ' )- $ J )- $ : L FM N

$% +. ' 2 W ' 5 \)Qt aQ q . $' •)0 \)Qt a , 4 J %' F \ / @ ) , % "O d

Sala-i-Martin & Subramanian, 2008: 64; Boschini &et al., 2013: 26

M )! s -. % ' . \)Qt a .(

, 4 O & \ a –

1 % a hJ 2 . ' \ x %' % -) –

$' . '% ' ' & 5 1 ) $ . %&T 1; +) a 4 % '% @ $% +. %' 1)5 ~ J J

Š % a G 2@ 1)5 '% ' -) 1 &' -. a 4 % '% @ $% +. %' .' , g)\r -.

?5, &

% 5 ' P i %' .'%&T 1; % -. a $ T%' 4 b ; +) % 2 $' % rJ -.

-. \)Qt a

?5, %' % 5 ' $ -) Š & 1)5 ~ J Š Q ' 2 W $' $'

-. )c \)Qt a ? %' .'4 ; + % $' '% W

%' 4%& +. a – )! s O . # ?) –

\ x %' . -) G 2@ 1)5 ~ J Š . -) 1 ) $ . . ' 1 % h<.

&' \)Qt a ' 2 W $' 1) ). \)Qt aQ q d 4T k $ :$&m# %' .'% ' ' & a %' -. \)Qt a ;' 4 O & \ a ? ,–

-. )c \)Qt a &– 4%& +. \)Qt a ? , –

... & %' ) $ g '% %' ;' &' BQ $ ' ' g)G .' , b)< –

5 ) & ( 6 ) >& ( 1

(

) >& .1; , u % 4

; %' . $' u % % -. \)Qt a (@ , 4 ' ; p '%&T ( b) < d >&

h 0 P&' ; %' -. % 5 ' P i : 5 $ )s '&-! 1; % ' \ & -. \)Qt a ; 1; % ' \ & -. % 5 ' -. \)Qt a : 5 $ h 0 P ; ; %' .1<) % ' \ '

5 $ h 0 + b+, P% C $ ; .1<) % ' \ :

G p ))s > . $ )s '&-! $'

; %' 1; , ' ' 2 W $' 1) ). d -. % 5 ' P i %' -. \)Qt a .' , P i .1; , % ' \ d ; ); $ ) >& %' -. )c \)Qt a (@ , 4 ' ; p '%&T

5 , u % (

(12)

ﻪ/ﺎﻨ0ﺼ1 ﯽ2ﻮ45 یراﺬ7ﺘ ﺎﯿ

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ<،

۳ ﺰ?@ﺎﭘ،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤHI.

۵۵ - ۴۱

b$ $ )s '&-! . , % ' \ & 1QX -. )c a b) < d >& ; %' .1;

P&' ; %' : .

•/; %' & 1QX -. )c ; . ' -. )c a : 5 $ h 0 10

> . $ )s '&-! .1; % ' \ G%'

) >& p .' , # p ))s b # P ; $ ; %' 5

\)Qt a . 1; T ) (

.1; , ' 2 W $' 1) ). d -. )c

> F 4 )#GA f .

;2&

) 1 ( )

2 ( )

3 ( )

4 ( )

5 ( )

6 (

G B s&, -3/999***

-4/090***

-3/922***

-4/154***

-4/185***

-4/034***

(0/543) (0/538)

(0/553) (0/626)

(0/667) (0/707)

& 1 0/683***

0/693***

0/676***

0/701***

0/704***

0/700***

(0/069) (0/068)

(0/069) (0/076)

(0/081) (0/086)

;2& )#GA f -0/979**

-0/549

(0/400) (0/459)

'

;2&

-0/689***

-0/559***

-0/626***

-0/564***

-0/563***

-0/619***

(0/161) (0/174)

(0/182) (0/198)

(0/200) (0/217)

;2& &2 -0/721***

-0/717***

-0/752***

-0/702***

-0/700***

-0/738***

(0/139) (0/137)

(0/152) (0/164)

(0/166) (0/175)

'

;2& &#j 0/305

0/191 -0/054

-0/032 -0/034

-0/179

(0/242) (0/247)

(0/307) (0/309)

(0/311) (0/499)

;2& )#GA f * ;2& ' -1/597**

-2/114***

-2/137***

-2/171***

-1/864**

(0/864) (0/746)

(0/748) (0/790)

(0/834)

*;2& &2

;2& )#GA f -0/940

-1/083 -1/085

-0/705

(0/852) (0/872)

(0/877) (0/945)

;2& )#GA f *;2& &#j ' 0/031

-0/035 -0/032

3/346

(0/641) (0/648)

(0/652) (12/163)

;2& )#GA f * ;2& &#j &2 -1/498

-1/583 -1/587

-1/008

(1/050) (1/058)

(1/064) (1/173)

# &

0/091 0/097

0/142

(0/114) (0/123)

(0/135)

&(

0/021 0/056

(0/149) (0/158)

T I 0 B F -0/304

(0/245)

X 7

99 99

99 99

99 92

1 73/865*** F

63/723***

47/932***

42/504***

37/834***

31/105***

1 2R^

0/799 0/806 0/810

0/811 0/811

0/810

:+9 ) W 1) . J (@ , ) ) $ ); O% P %' < & )s 1996

- 2000 } '% ; $ /@ .1; (

.1; , % - # ?@ ' %' h 0 $

*

**

' % T ***

•/; %' h) h 0 % ' \ 1 M 10

%

5%

&

1

% .'% '

> F 5

;2& &#j )#GA f .

) 1 ( )

2 ( )

3 ( )

4 ( )

5 (

G B s&, -3/786***

-3/798***

-3/788***

-3/656***

-3/500***

(0/545) (0/554)

(0/624) (0/657)

(0/674)

& 1 0/646***

0/635***

0/634***

0/618***

0/628***

(0/069) (0/070)

(0/077) (0/081)

(0/084)

;2& &#j )#GA f 3/500

(2/511)

(13)

;2& ' -0/805***

-0/601***

-0/604***

-0/607***

-0/712***

(0/160) (0/190)

(0/204) (0/204)

(0/216)

;2& &2 -0/795***

-0/720***

-0/722***

-0/728***

-0/801***

(0/141) (0/162)

(0/171) (0/172)

(0/176)

;2& &#j ' 0/009

0/145 0/145

0/156 0/188

(0/209) (0/243)

(0/245) (0/246)

(0/427)

;2& &#j )#GA f * ;2& ' -4/309

-4/310 -3/280

-0/578

(5/283) (5/313)

(5/556) (5/604)

;2& &#j )#GA f *;2& &2 4/332

4/342 4/279

5/347

(3/114) (3/144)

(3/156) (3/157)

;2& &#j )#GA f *;2& &#j ' -10/094

-10/158 -10/901

-29/757

(36/914) (37/164)

(37/301) (45/728)

;2& &#j )#GA f * ;2& &#j &2 13/208*

13/235*

13/500*

13/051*

(6/914) (6/993)

(7/027) (7/027)

# &

-0/004 -0/035

0/071

(0/114) (0/124)

(0/135)

&(

-0/100 -0/025

(0/152) (0/155)

T I 0 B F -0/520

(0/219)

X 7

99 99

99 99

92

1 70/090*** F

44/991***

39/549***

35/410***

31/452***

1 2R^

0/790 0/800 0/800

0/801 0/812

:+9 ) W 1) . J (@ , ) ) $ ); O% P %' < & )s 1996

- 2000 } '% ; $ /@ .1; (

.1; , % - # ?@ ' %' h 0 $

*

**

; %' h) h 0 % ' \ 1 M' % T ***

•/

10

%

5%

&

1

% .'% '

N$*

5%

zJ Q g * F \ / %' \)Qt a 4 % '% @ -) & ' 2 W 5J 1) ). ) / % $ + %' , ‚ / ? M' ) 4 .1; ' ' ?5, # )O ?5, ? M' [ 2@ %' ) ) % ' <O

2@

). 1 % & 5 -)! ; g\0 < ; g\0 $ % ) C F \ / @ [ \)Qt a % rJ bc% /W & E& $% +. @ 5 1; :; # ? ) %' w T . , '

5, % ' 2 W 5J 4 Q; 1) ). <

%' ... & P G %&' ~ Ru&- & C $% +. ? %' . $' ?

:$&m# %' , u % i f C% C # . ' Q l! G 2@ :* 1)5 ~ J J $' $' ?5,

$ & 1) ). .1; , ! \ a , # )O ?5, %' % "O d ) . )s ; ); P i P i q BQ

%' $' + p . . (*+ % ' 2 W 5J \)Qt a % "O d % . & 4 ; . 1; ; );

1) . J 1)5 ~ J J ' 2 W $' $' ?5, %' . ))\ ? ; . ' 1) ). ; . ' $ P i 1; ' $' '% W & W , $% +. ' 2 W $' ' 5 % ' \ d \)Qt a % rJ P % rJ &

O .1;

b)< g * 4 ) ; ); F% W . -. )c ; . ' $ P i %' ' 2 W $' 1) ). .

' ; ); F% W . 1; -. ; . ' $ P i 4 , P i %' .1; h* & O ' ! % 2 %

% 5 ' $

.1; , ' 2 W $' 1) ). g)\r \)Qt a % rJ 1; ' ! A % 2 %' ; ); F% W . -.

x * 5 M t F F% W %' % rJ & ; ); F% W M -. ?) ' b. J ' ! $ P i %' 1; );

$

>' '4 ; b$ ! % < & \)Qt a % rJ & '% ' % $& O 2*, a! 1 %' $ *

(14)

ﻪ/ﺎﻨ0ﺼ1 ﯽ2ﻮ45 یراﺬ7ﺘ ﺎﯿ

هرود ۸ هرﺎﻤ<،

۳ ﺰ?@ﺎﭘ،

۱۴۰۱ تﺎﺤHI.

۵۵ - ۴۱

$ P i %' \)Qt a % rJ . $' :, # % ' @ $ 1; ); ' 2 W T% . a 4 ' ; ' ! ' 5 d

; . ' + -. )c % 5 ' $ P i %' .1; ' . + % b. J a % rJ $

.1; , ' 2 W $' ' 5 % ' \ d \)Qt ; ); P i q % .%' \)Qt aQ q p Q

.1; ' d ' 2 W $' 1) ). g)\r %' -) )! s 1 4 M -. % ' . -. \)Qt a % rJ

, ' 1)5 ~ J J $' 1) ). d -. % 5 ' $ P i %' \ & a ? , <$

<$ )! s 1 4 . -. % ' . -. )c \)Qt a % rJ ? %' .1;

4%& +. a ? ,

.1; , $ P i %' % ' \ d & %' F% W -. 1) $ ; ); 1 4 T 1; p

$' )O ?5, h -. )c ; . ' P i %' F% W a 4 .'% ' ). ' 2 W $' 1) ). T d &

J ' 2 W \)Qt a 1; , hQ; -. )c % 5 ' P i %' F% W a 4 ) w $ .1; , 1)5 ~ J

F% W a 4 . 1@ ; ‚ / % ; ); )G . , , ' 2 W $' 1) ). d ' C & ; . ' $ P i %' C g * 4 ) .' ' ' Q % ' 2 W $' 1) ). % 5 ' $ P i %

-) ?) .'4 ; b$ ! ; ); P i & \)Qt a ? : 5 $ [ 2@ %' % +) $ :$&m# ) 4

%' T \)Qt a d & $x 1) / a i 4 ; ); P i q $ %' % ; ); $ $% @ ; ? < & % .

:$&m# ' %' . 1; $% 4 -. % 5 ' $ P i %' \)Qt a $ T%' ; );

.' )O % W ) '%

References:

1- Acemoglu, D., Johnson, S., & Robinson, J. A. (2002). Reversal of fortune: Geography &institutions in the making of the modern world income distribution. The Quarterly journal of economics, 117(4), 1231-1294.

2- Acemoglu, D., & Robinson, J., (2012), "Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity &Poverty", London, Profile.

3- Al-Sharekh, Alanoud, ed. (2007). The Gulf Family: Kinship Policies &Modernity. London Middle East Institute, SOAS Middle East Issues.

4- Andersen, J. J., & Aslaksen, S. (2008). Constitutions &the resource curse. Journal of development economics, 87(2), 227-246.

5- Andersen, J. J., & Aslaksen, S. (2013). Oil &political survival. Journal of Development Economics, 100(1), 89-106.

6- Auty, R. M., & Gelb, A. H. (2001). Political economy of resource-abundant states. Resource abundance &economic development, 126-44.

7- Baland, J. M., & Francois, P. (2000). Rent-seeking &resource booms. Journal of development Economics, 61(2), 527-542.

8- Bhattacharyya, S. (2009). Unbundled institutions, human capital &growth. Journal of Comparative Economics, 37(1), 106-120.

9- Bhattacharyya, S., & Hodler, R. (2010). Natural resources, democracy &corruption. European Economic Review, 54(4), 608-621.

10- Bjorvatn, K., & Selvik, K. (2008). Destructive competition: factionalism &rent-seeking in Iran. World Development, 36(11), 2314-2324.

11- Boschini, A., Pettersson, J., & Roine, J. (2013). The resource curse &its potential reversal. World Development, 43, 19-41.

12- Bulte, E. H., Damania, R., & Deacon, R. T. (2004). Resource abundance, poverty &development (No. 854-2016-56192).

13- Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (2009). Testing the neocon agenda: Democracy in resource-rich societies. European Economic Review, 53(3), 293-308.

14- Fiva, J. H., Folke, O., & Sørensen, R. J. (2018). The power of parties: evidence from close municipal elections in Norway. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 120(1), 3-30.

15- Gylfason, T. (2001). Natural resources, education, &economic development. European economic review, 45(4), 847-859.

16- Gylfason, T., & Zoega, G. (2006). Natural resources &economic growth: The role of investment. The World Economy, 29(8), 1091-1115.

17- Herb, M. (1999). All in the family: absolutism, revolution, &democracy in Middle Eastern monarchies. SUNY Press.

18- Hodler, R. (2006). The curse of natural resources in fractionalized countries. European Economic Review, 50(6), 1367-1386.

19- Karsh, E., & Rautsi, I. (2002). Saddam Hussein: a political biography. Grove Press.

20- Kudamatsu, Timothy Besley&Masayuki, &Timothy Besley. (2008). Making Autocracy Work. Institutions &Economic Performance: 452- 510.

21- Le Billon, P. (2005). Corruption, reconstruction &oil governance in Iraq. Third World Quarterly, 26(4-5), 685-703.

22- Murphy, K. M., Shleifer, A., & Vishny, R. W. (1993). Why is rent-seeking so costly to growth?. The American Economic Review, 83(2), 409-414.

23- Persson, T. &G. Tabellini (2003), The Economic E¤ects of Constitutions: What Do the Data Say?, MIT Press, Cambridge MA.

24- Rodrik, D., Subramanian, A., & Trebbi, F. (2004). Institutions rule: the primacy of institutions over geography &integration in economic development. Journal of economic growth, 9(2), 131-165.

25- Sachs, J. D., & Warner, A. M. (2001). The curse of natural resources. European economic review, 45(4-6), 827-838.

26- Sala-i-Martin, X., & Subramanian, A. (2008). Addressing the natural resource curse: An illustration from Nigeria. In Economic policy options for a prosperous Nigeria (pp. 61-92). Palgrave Macmillan, London.

27- Wahman, M., Teorell, J., & Hadenius, A. (2013). Authoritarian regime types revisited: updated data in comparative perspective. Contemporary Politics, 19(1), 19-34.

28- Weisbrot, M., & Sandoval, L. (2007). The Venezuelan economy in the Chávez years. Center for Economic &Policy Research, 23, 2015.

(15)

+%$+ %O. % - ; <+ A%+ : % 1970

4

;2& &#j ' ;2& &#j &2 ;2& ' ;2& &2

Bahrain Australia Algeria Argentina

Bhutan Austria Benin Bangladesh

Jordan Barbados Bolivia Brazil

kuwait Belgium Burundi Burkina Faso

Morocco Canada Cameroon Colombia

Nepal Costa Rica Central African Rep. Dominican Republic

qatar cyprus Chad El Salvador

Saudia Arabia Denmark China France

Swaziland Fiji Congo Rep. Of Gambia The

Finland Cote d'Ivoire Greece

Germany Ecuador Guatemala

Iceland Egypt Guyana

India Gabon Indonesia

Ireland Ghana Iran

Israel Guinea-Bissau Kenya

Italy Haiti Korea

Jamaica Honduras Madagascar

Japan Hungary Malaysia

Mauritius Malawi Mexico

Netherlands Mali Nicaragua

New Zealand Mauritania Pakistan

Norway Niger Paraguay

South Africa Nigeria Philippines

Spain Panama Portugal

Sri Lanka Peru Sierra Leone

Sweden poland Syria

Switzerland Romania Thailand

Trinidad &Tobago Senegal Turkey

United Kingdom Togo Uruguay

United States Tunisia Venezuela

uganda Zambia

Zimbabwe

Referensi

Dokumen terkait

Associate Professor, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Science and Research branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran Received: June 7, 2019- Accepted: November

Associate Professor, Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran Received: April 23, 2018;Accepted: July 30, 2018 Abstract Given

ECONOMIC POLICY-MAKING ON SANCTIONS CONTROL THROUGHOUT THE PROCESS OF NUCLEAR DIPLOMACY Abbas Mossalanejad1 Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Tehran, Iran

Hamzehdoost3 1 Associate Professor of Ophthalmology, Eye Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran 2 Ophthalmologist 3 Assistant Professor of

1- PhD Candidate, Department of Nursing, University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences AND Faculty Member, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran 2- Associate Professor, Social

Amel Shahbaz2 1Assistant Professor, Department of Oral Medicine, Faculty of Dentistry, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran 2 Dentist, Tehran, Iran Statement of Problem: Physiologic

in Dramatic Literature from Essex University, England Associate Professor at University of Tehran, Iran Tehran, Iran Received: ١٥th, February, ٢٠١٦, Accepted: ١٤th, May, ٢٠١٦ Date of

2- Associate Professor of clinical psychology, Faculty of Humanities, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran Abstract Introduction: Experiential avoidance is one of the trans-diagnostic