Promoters
Exogenous hormones, particularly gonadotropins, have been used for years to induce final maturation of captive female broodfish. Hormone products such as lutein- izing hormone releasing hormone-analog (LHRHa), Table 4: Application of inorganic fertilizer in shrimp Penaeus monodon and milkfish
Chanos chanos ponds for the period surveyed in 1995–1996 and 2006–2007
Fertilizer Commodity/Phase 1995–1996 2006–2007
Monoammonium phosphate (16-20-0) Shrimp/pond preparation (broadcast) 4–100 kg/ha 9–100 kg/ha Shrimp/rearing phase (periodic broadcast) 150–300 kg/ha —
Milkfish/pond preparation 100–300 kg/ha 40–240 kg/ha
Milkfish/rearing phase 3.2 kg/ha
(every 15 days till harvest)
20–100 kg/ha
Diammonium phosphate (18-46-0) Shrimp/pond preparation 3.2–50 kg/ha 3–120 kg/ha
Shrimp/rearing phase 0.6–20 kg/ha
Milkfish/pond preparation Broadcast 50–150 kg/ha 40–240 kg/ha
Milkfish/rearing phase — 6–10 kg/ha
NPK (14-14-14) Shrimp/pond preparation 7.5–15 kg/ha 10–20 kg/ha
Shrimp/rearing phase 3 kg/ha —
Milkfish/pond preparation Broadcast — 20–40 kg/ha
Milkfish/rearing phase broadcast — —
Urea (46-0-0) Shrimp/pond preparation 5–120 kg/ha 10–100 kg/ha
Shrimp/rearing phase 3.2–5 kg/ha 4–5 kg/ha
Milkfish/pond preparation Broadcast 25–200 kg/ha 40–150 kg/ha Milkfish/rearing phase broadcast 12 kg/ha
(every 15 days till harvest)
5–100 kg/ha
Solophos (0-20-0) Shrimp/pond preparation 3–20 kg/ha —
Shrimp/rearing phase 5–10 kg/ha —
Ammonium sulfate (21-0-0)
Calcium nitrate
Shrimp/pond preparation 100–500 kg/ha 10–100 kg/ha
Shrimp/pond preparation (broadcast) 3–50 kg/ha —
Shrimp/rearing phase (broadcast) 5–10 kg/ha —
Source: Cruz-Lacierda, de La Pena, and Lumanlan-Mayo 2000; Cruz-Lacierda et al. 2008.
human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), and other hormone containing products such as OvatideTM and OvaprimTM (both are a combination of gonadotropin and a dopamine antagonist). Hormones such as these
have been used in the Philippines for commodities such as milkfish, sea bass, bighead carp, catfish, grou- pers, and many other species (Kungvankij et al. 1986;
Tan-Fermin and Emata 1993; Liao et al. 1979; Marte et Table 5: Summary of organic fertilizers used in milkfish and shrimp ponds and in
polyculture of these two commodities
Year Organic Fertilizer Milkfish Shrimp Polyculture
1996–1997 Chicken manure 500–3,000 kg/ha (pond preparation, broadcast
100–3,000 kg/ha (pond preparation; tea bags)
— 200 kg/ha (rearing, tea bags) 100–1,000 kg/ha (rearing phase; tea bags) — Goat/pig manure 500–1,000 kg/ha
(pond preparation, broadcast)
— —
BioearthTM 500 kg/ha
(pond preparation, broadcast)
— —
Cow manure — 100–500 kg/ha (pond preparation; tea bags) —
— 100–200 kg/ha (rearing phase; tea bags) —
Carabao manure — 240–300 kg/ha (pond preparation; tea bags) —
— 100–200 kg/ha (rearing phase, tea bag) —
VIMACATM (Chicken/
pig manure)
— 1,000 kg/ha (pond preparation; tea bags) —
2006–2007 Chicken manure 1–10 tons/ha (pond preparation)
— 0.5–10 tons/ha
(pond preparation) 0.1–1.5 tons/ha
(rearing phase)
— —
Cow/carabao manure 2.5 tons/ha (pond preparation) 50–250 kg/ha (pond preparation) —
Mud press (sugar mill) 6 tons/ha (pond preparation) — —
Horse manure 16 kg/ha (pond preparation)
Pig manure — — 1 ton/ha
Source: Cruz-Lacierda, de La Pena, and Lumanlan-Mayo 2000; Cruz Lacierda et al. 2008.
Table 6: Use and dosage of other chemicals to modify soil or water quality for aquaculture of milkfish and shrimp and polyculture of the two species
Year Chemical Milkfish Shrimp Polyculture
2006–2007 Agricultural lime (CaCO3)
0.2–6 tons/ha 1–10 tons/ha;
200–300 kg/ha (rearing phase)
1–5 tons/ha;
140–400 kg/ha (rearing phase) Hydrated lime
(Ca(OH)2)
0.2–2 tons/ha 0.4–2 tons/ha;
50–200 kg/ha (rearing phase)
0.75–1.5 tons/ha;
200–300 kg/ha (rearing phase)
Dolomite (MgCO3) 40–600 kg/ha 100–200 kg/ha/week 250 kg/ha
1996–1997 Agricultural lime 300–500 kg/ha — —
Hydrated lime 150–1,000 kg/ha — —
(Source: Cruz-Lacierda, de La Pena, and Lumanlan-Mayo 2000; Cruz Lacierda et al. 2008)
al. 1987; Fermin 1991; Almendras et al. 1988). Table 8 shows the dosage of various hormones used for induced breeding of catfish and bighead carp induced spawning.
Another use of hormones in aquaculture is for sex reversal, either for masculinization or feminization.
The culture of monosex fish has been shown to improve growth compared to mixed sex culture since a greater portion of energy in feed is channeled toward somatic
growth rather than reproduction (Chakraborty et al.
2011). The hormones 17-α-methyltestosterone (MT) and estradiol-17β are the most common hormones for masculinization and feminization, respectively (Pan- dian and Sheela 1995). In the Philippines, the most common species that undergo sex reversal through hormone treatment of MT are tilapia. Since the mid- 1980s commercial-scale sex reversal, mainly masculin- ization, through MT treatment has been practiced in many tilapia-producing countries including the Philip- pines (Popma and Green 1990). Diets are mixed with MT at 10 mg/kg at a rate of 15–20 percent of BW per day of tilapia for 20–30 days (Popma and Green 1990; Chakraborty et al. 2011). After this method, 97–100 percent phenotypically male tilapia can be achieved and ready for grow-out.
3.3.2 Use of Anesthetics
Anesthetics are employed in fisheries and aquaculture in instances when the fish need to be transported or han- dled, which is stressful to the fish. Stress can result in immunosuppression, physical injury, and even death to the fish. During transport, anesthetics are used to Table 8: Sample of hormone dosage used
for induced spawning of the Asian catfish Clarias microcephalus and bighead carp Aristichthys nobilis
Hormone Catfish Bighead Carp
HCG 4 IU/g body weight (BW)
2,000 IU/kg BW (female);
1,000 IU/kg BW (for male) LHRHa 0.05 μg/g BW 20–50 μ g/kg BW (female);
10–25 μ g/kg BW (male) OvaprimTM 0.5 μ L/g BW 0.5 ml/kg BW (female);
0.25 ml/kg BW (male) OvatideTM 0.2 μ L/g BW 0.5 ml/kg BW (female);
0.25 ml/kg BW (male) Source: Tan-Fermin et al. 2008; Gonzal et al. 2001.
Note: OvaprimTM and OvatideTM are commercial preparations containing LHRHa and domperidone.
Table 7: Application of common piscicides and molluscicides in milkfish and shrimp culture and polyculture of these two commodities
Year Chemical (active ingredient) Milkfish Shrimps Polyculture
2006–2007 Teaseed (saponin) 10–50 kg/ha 1C–30 kg/ha 20–25 kg/ha
Brestan 60 (triphenyltin acetate) 0.25–1.5 kg/ha — 0.25–0.75 kg/ha
Sodium cyanide 0.5–6 kg/ha — 1–6 kg/ha
Tobacco dust (nicotine) 500–1,500 kg/ha —
Thiodan (endosulfan) 0.1 ppm — 0.1 ppm
D-crab (pyrethroid) — 1 liter/ha —
Clear 97 (trichlorfon) — 20 kg/ha —
1996–1997 Teaseed (saponin) 5–400 kg/ha — —
Tobacco dust (nicotine) 400 kg/ha — —
Derris root (Rotenone) 300–800 kg/ha — —
Brestan (organotin) 250–600 kg/ha — —
Gusathion 0.1 ppm — —
Source: Cruz-Lacierda, de La Pena, and Lumanlan-Mayo 2000; Cruz Lacierda et al. 2008.
reduce metabolism which in turn reduces oxygen con- sumption and excretion rates (Coyle, Durborow, and Tidwell 2004; Strange and Shreck 1978). Immersion in anesthetic bath is the most common way anesthetics are applied to fish and crustaceans. For large-size fish, the anesthetic solution may be sprayed to the gills. The anes- thetic is absorbed through the gills and enters the blood stream to take effect on the fish. Table 9 is a list of com- mon anesthetics and their dosage for various aquaculture commodities. Environmental and human safety regula- tions on the use of anesthetics in aquaculture are not yet in place in the Philippines. In the United States, only
MS-222 is registered for use in food fish and requires a 21-day withdrawal period (Coyle, Durborow, and Tidwell 2004). Thus far, there is no such list of approved anesthetics for use in aquaculture in the Philippines.
3.4 Practices to Improve Aquatic