The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. An Overview of Agricultural Pollution in the Philippines: The Fisheries Sector.” Prepared for the World Bank.
History of Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture in the Philippines
In the Philippines, the earliest record of a pond was in Rizal province in 1863 (1921 Philippine census in Siddall, Atchue, and Murray 1985). At the turn of the century there were reports of a pond culture in the Manila area (Radcliffe 1912, as cited by Primavera 1993).
Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture Development in the Philippines
Ninety percent of total capture fishery production is attributed to marine resources and the remaining 10 percent to domestic capture fisheries. However, it is in this specific subsector that Laguna experienced the fastest decline in total capture fishery production between 1980 and 2014, as shown in Figure 11.
Population Pressure to Increase Fish Production from
If the country's population grows as expected, with a population projection of 110.97 million in 2020, fish consumption will reach 3.5 tons using the. Regarding self-sufficiency in fish production compared to fish consumption, there was a deficit from 1961 to 1975. To address the shortfall in fish stocks for local consumption, various programs to improve capture fisheries and aquaculture production were undertaken by the Government's BFAR through Figure 27: Philippine population growth.
Contribution of Capture Fisheries and Aquaculture in
In the Philippines, about a million people are employed in the fishing and fish farming sector. Available census data shows that in the 1990s, 990,872 people were under this sector, which is estimated at 5 percent of the country's population. In the 2002 census, the number of people involved in fisheries increased to more than 1.6 million.
There was a marked increase in the number of people employed in the municipal fisheries sector to almost 1.4 million people (85 percent), while aquaculture decreased slightly to percent) and the commercial sector further reduced to just 16,498 (1 percent ) (BFAR 1977–2014).
Conversion of Land and Water Resources for Aquaculture
The first Member of Parliament in the Philippines was established in 2001 in the Island Garden City of Samal in Davao. The decline in mangrove area in recent decades can be traced back to the conversion of these areas into milkfish and shrimp ponds. The declining fish catch in the Philippines' largest lake, Laguna de Bay, prompted the introduction of milkfish culture into fish pens in this lake.
The initial success of milkfish culture in Laguna de Bay resulted in the adoption of pen and cage aquaculture in other inland water bodies in the country.
Practices to Prepare and Improve Culture Environment
Chicken manure is the most used, and according to survey results between 2006 and 2007, 85 percent of the 39 respondents use this manure for their milkfish ponds, while none of the 40 respondents engaged in shrimp culture I use this organic fertilizer. Horse manure is used by only 3 percent of respondents for shrimp farming, while pig manure is used by 5 percent of respondents for milkfish and shrimp polyculture (Cruz-Lacierda et al. 2008). Lime is applied to adjust the pH of the pond soil to neutral or alkaline to promote ammonia volatilization.
Common types of lime used in pond preparation are agricultural lime (CaCO3), slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) and dolomite (MgCO3).
Practices to Improve Production
Typical of pond preparation before any culture material is stocked is the eradication of other fish and mollusc species that may prey on cultured species or compete for food, oxygen and space in the culture medium. In the Philippines, the most common species undergoing sex change through hormonal MT treatment are tilapia. Environmental and human safety regulations for the use of anesthetics in aquaculture are not yet in place in the Philippines.
So far, there is no such list of approved anesthetics for use in aquaculture in the Philippines.
Practices to Improve Aquatic Animal Health
The use of antibacterial treatments in aquaculture became widespread in the 1970s, as bacterial pathogens became increasingly common in aquaculture. With the intensification of shrimp culture, fueled by its attractive price, not only locally but especially in the international market, problems with shrimp diseases causing high mortality must be addressed to maintain production volume. For example, in shrimp culture, the presence of the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio has resulted in the destruction of many farms in the country, ultimately resulting in the sharp decline in shrimp production not only in the Philippines, but also in the Philippines.
Chlorine (as calcium hypochlorite) or formalin is used to treat the water in reservoirs before use in the shrimp ponds (Cruz-Lacierda et al. 2008).
Practice to Diversity Cultured Commodities
The peak of the introduction of exotic fish species in the country was in the 1970s with more than 50 introduced species (Cagauan 2007). Many fish species introduced for aquaculture have proven to be economically beneficial to many farming communities around the world, including the Philippines. Among the best freshwater species farmed in the Philippines is an introduced species, the Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus.
Encouraging results in the translocation of wild juveniles of Trochus niloticus to other localities proved to be a promising strategy for the conservation of this endangered species (Dolorosa, Grant and Gill 2013).
Environmental Impacts
When the BFAR was founded in the late 1940s, funds became available for pond construction (mainly through international loans). Massive fish kills are a common occurrence in aquaculture operations in the Philippines and have caused huge financial losses to the aquaculture investor. In 2002, a large-scale fish kill incident occurred in the area associated with a dinoflagellate bloom, accompanied by a dissolved oxygen level of <2 mg/L.
Significant fish kill incidents in Taalmeer have caused major economic setbacks in the area.
Impact of Diversification of Culture Commodities
The introduction of the Thai catfish Clarias batracus has resulted in the loss of the native catfish Clarias macrocephalus in many inland waters of the country. The results showed that fish biodiversity was significantly lower at the aquaculture site compared to the non-aquaculture site. There was a significantly greater predominance of introduced species for culture (Nile tilapia, bighead carp, Tra catfish) compared to native species in the aquaculture site.
In the case of the golden apple snail (Pomacea Canaliculata), its introduction caused significant damage not only to inland waters but also to many rice fields (Joshi 2006).
Human Health Impacts
In addition to the direct contamination of fish products, as shown in the previous section, the use of antibiotics in aquaculture feed also poses a concern in terms of the release of these compounds through flushing and excretion of aquatic animals, which in turn will contaminate environment (water and sediment). This has resulted in the emergence of antibiotic-resistant microbes in aquaculture environments, increased antibiotic resistance in fish pathogens, transfer of resistance to terrestrial animal microbes and human pathogens, and a shift in bacterial populations in sediments and water. (Cabello 2006). The presence of these antibiotic residues exerts an unfair influence on the microflora in water and sediment and modifies the diversity of the population of microorganisms not only on the site, but also in other areas where the residues can be washed.
As many antibiotics used in aquaculture are also used in humans, concerns have been raised about antibiotic resistance and other consequential effects on human health (Marshall and Levy 2011).
Socioeconomic Impacts
In the Philippines, two of the three most farmed fish species have been introduced (in the case of Nile tilapia) or translocated (in the case of milkfish). Milkfish is a translocated species and accounted for an average of 6.43 percent of total milkfish production in the Philippines and 0.41 percent of all fish produced in the country from 1996 to 2006 (Israel, Boni-Cortez, and Patambang 2008). Nile tilapia, however, is an exotic species brought into the lake for cultivation.
On average, this species accounted for 9.01 percent of all tilapia produced in the country and 0.31 percent of total fish production (Israel, Boni-Cortez, and Patambang 2008).
Use of Eubiotics and Strategies to Improve Health of Aquatic Animals
Some probiotics can produce a specific antibacterial substance themselves, while others can reduce the production of toxic amines and decrease the level of ammonia in the gastrointestinal tract (De et al. 2009). The prebiotic must be resistant to gastric acids, breakdown by digestive enzymes in the gut, and gastrointestinal absorption and fermentation by gut microflora (Ringo et al. 2010). These can be in the form of short chain fatty acids (C1-C7), volatile fatty acids and weak carboxylic acids.
When a functional feed also helps prevent/treat diseases and disorders, it is called a nutraceutical (Alexander et al. 2011).
Legislations and Regulations on the Use of Chemicals and Fisheries and Aquaculture
The classes of aquaculture chemicals listed in the guidelines and commonly used in ASEAN Member States include (a) antibiotics/antimicrobials for both food fish and ornamental plants; b) disinfectants; c) chemotherapeutics Table 19: PNS for various fishery products. There are differences in the list of permitted and prohibited chemicals in each ASEAN member. The ASEAN Guidelines were developed because the use of drugs and chemicals in aquaculture activities in the ASEAN region is not fully regulated.
The CA designation of these agencies originates from the existing regulatory structure in the Philippines.
Regulations on the introduction of nonnative species for
Technologies to Reduce Nutrients from Aquaculture
Food security through sustainable mariculture park projects in the Philippines.” East Asian Seas Congress Presentation. Current Status of Chemical and Biological Product Use and Health Management Practices in Aquaculture Farms in the Philippines.” mem. Introduction of Exotic Aquatic Species in the Philippines.” In Exotic Aquatic Organisms in Asia, edited by S.S.
Update on Freshwater Mollusc Research in the Philippines.” In Aquatic Biology Research and Development in the Philippines, edited by R.
