CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.4 Theoretical Review
2.4.3 Human Relations Theory
The Human Relations Movement refers to organizational improvement researchers who specialize in the functioning of workplace groups. It stems from Hawthorne's research in the 1930s, which looked at the impact of social ties, motivation, and employee happiness on manufacturing production (Macefield, 2007).
Human resource management was born as a discipline dedicated to the management of people rather than seeing them as interchangeable pieces of a business. Mayo emphasized the social characteristics of natural groups, which take priority over functional organizational systems. The communication that goes up is a two-way street, with workers communicating with the CEO and vice versa. Cohesive and successful decision-making requires good leadership to express goals and promote efficient communication.
2.4.4 Goal-Setting Theory and Implications to Information Technology Theory of motivation, specifically goal-setting concept, and expectation theory, help us comprehend the conceptual basis for performance management. Goal-setting theory (Heslin, 2005) claims that not only does assigning explicit goals to contribute to improved performance, but also raising the challenge or complexity of goals, given goal acceptability, leads to greater motivation and engagement (Noe, 2002). However, such assumptions not only ignore the debate about the nature of the strategy and its formulation (Mitroff, 2003) but also fail to recognize the context in which a public management service operates.
At the outset is that technology is a fantastic (and nevertheless pricey) instrument for helping people address an ever-growing multitude of world problems. It can aid in the recovery of knowledge, the management of a corporation, and the explanation of arithmetic to teens. But, at the end of the day, ICTs are tools (despite
their more human-like appearance) and should be treated as such, never being permitted to cast doubt on humanity's talents and potential to achieve goals.
2.4.5 Theories Related to Providing Public Services
There are different studies conducted in different countries regarding the working principles of public services and among them the charter concept of the UK is remarkable. It includes the selection of stakeholders, norms of quality services, independent evaluation, continuous improvement, and proof of charter. Similarly, Gabler and Osborn (2019) in their book 'Reinventing the Government' mentioned ten American models including the following principles:
Competitiveness among the service providers Empowerment of the citizens
Emphasis on impact
Beneficiaries in the form of customers Objectively oriented services
Problem-solving and revenue-generation Devolution of power and authorities Utilization of market system and
Helpful to sensitize all the sectors (Sainbule, 2019).
2.4.6 Evaluation Principles of Development Interventions
The evaluation of any development interventions can be carried out through the framework of the five criteria including efficiency, effectiveness, relevance, impact, and sustainability as mentioned by OECD evaluation guidelines (OECD, 2018). These are general criteria that should be utilized to construct evaluating questions over the complete spectrum of assessment issues, i.e., from a single intervention to thematic and evaluation methods. According to OECD recommendations, the following evaluation methodologies should be used:
Relevance: A measure of how well a development intervention's goals match with the needs of its intended recipients, the needs of the host country, and global priorities.
Efficiency: A measure of the accuracy with which resources (funds, knowledge, time, etc.) are turned into results.
Effectiveness: The degree to which the development intervention's goals were met, or are projected to meet, in light of their relative significance.
Impacts: The planned or unexpected positive and negative, primary and secondary long-term repercussions of a development intervention, whether indirectly or directly.
Sustainability: Continuing to reap the benefits of a development intervention even after the assistance has ended. Long-term advantages are likely. Over time, the net benefit flows' risk resilience.
The criteria were evaluated based on the following approaches:
Table 2.1 Evaluation Criteria of Development Intervention
Criteria Indicator Measure
Relevance Are the purpose and goal meaningful? Qualitative Effectiveness Was the goal met, and how significant was the
contribution of the outputs?
Qualitative
Efficiency What fraction of inputs are converted to outputs?
Quantitative
Impact What were the positive and negative, direct and indirect effects?
Qualitative and Quantitative Sustainability To what extent was the system able to retain the
positive effects of the system?
Qualitative
Source: OECD, 2018.
The evaluation can be carried out applying both qualitative as well as quantitative approaches. This research study demands a mixed methodology.
2.5 Review of Contemporary Research Studies
Different facets of e-governance were necessary for the current investigation.
Several recent scholars have proposed various facets of human resource management.
Human resource management always searches for employees in the market to fulfill the demands of the organization. People working at all levels of an organization come from different levels of an economy, ethics, and religions, and they exhibit different behaviors, perceptions, and desires. The achievement of government policy and organizational goals can be dependent upon employees, who come from different backgrounds and have specific characteristics. In this circumstance, scientific governance is anticipated to place the appropriate person in the right place via management.
Carter (2005) did a study on e-governance and management and discovered that public governance (or review), which is the basis of good management, is beneficial for a large multinational company like Barclays Bank to embrace and implement. It aids in assessing bureaucracy's efficacy by using SMART objectives to guarantee that developmental needs are met. However, several issues need to be resolved if the entire process is to be objective, fair, and helpful to all participants. Ratings were found to be directly associated with achievements Williamson (2009) conducted a study and defined in his books that there are several reasons to adopt e-governance. The first appraisal provides information upon which system architecture and database management can be made. Second, the system architecture provides an opportunity for people and their subordinates' work-related behavior. This is a concept that enables the formulation of a strategy to remedy any flaws found in the system while also reinforcing what the system performs well. Finally, the architecture of the system should be at the center of the planning process since it offers an excellent opportunity to examine the system's plans in light of the demonstrated strengths and shortcomings. The Journal of Nepal Administrative Staff College (NASC, 2010) revealed that HRD is a process for creating and activating human expertise development to increase performance in an organization through organization development (T & D) and professional growth is more critical than ever before.
Ministry of Finance of Nepal (2011/12) conducted a study on the "economic survey of e-governance" of Nepal. Overall, this research found that Nepal's government, which was created to meet social obligations and import new technology while also meeting private sector capital and entrepreneurial demand in the early stages of national development, played a critical role in the country's growth. Decenzo and Robbins (2000) identified three primary functions of a system. First and foremost, it can be utilized as a foundation for allocating rewards; who gets assistance, commitment, and other commands are based on their task results. As a second benefit, these architectures can be utilized to pinpoint specific regions that require further research and development. According to Agrawal (2008), effectiveness measures what people do. It's an assessment of e-formal governance's obligations and potential for future responsibilities. It reviews job-relevant strengths and weaknesses of service providers. It evaluates the contribution of each task to the accomplishment of organizational goals; it is result-based.
According to Monica Perez Jolles, Bowen McBeath, Sarah Carnochan, and Michael J. Austin's article "Factors Associated with Managerial Innovation in Public Human Service Organizations," an integrated view of organizational change literature, managerial innovation, and evidence influences managerial innovation in public human service organizations. Managers who are more open to organizational change and actively seek out peers who are committed to evidence-informed management practice are more likely to be involved in exploring and implementing new approaches to current organizational problems, according to the study's findings. Thus, identifying practitioners who are open to organizational transformation and facilitating the development of learning communities that link evidence-minded and innovation- minded practitioners can assist in encouraging management innovation in the public sector. A major finding of the study is that group learning and action are critical to agency innovation and evidence-based practices' implementation. This study also highlights the need for additional research on the traits and activities of innovative public managers to truly comprehend their impact on organizational transformation and performance.
According to Kevin Zhu, Kenneth Kraemer, and Jason Dedrick's study, "Highs and Lows of the E-commerce Phenomenon," IT spending, e-business, and company
profitability are all intertwined. With the recent poor performance of IT firms and the bursting of the dot-com bubble, there has been a push to downplay the role of IT and e- business, as seen by a recent study asserting that IT investments have no positive influence on economic production. This result could have significant ramifications for the investment decisions of organizations in future IT and e-business generations.
According to the research, IT investment has a positive influence on firm performance because of the high route loadings from IT spending to e-business value. The IT and Web spending variable of the researchers did not include all components of e-business investment, but it did show a connection between investment and e-business value.
Furthermore, this link should not be viewed separately. It would have to be taken into account as part of a broader scheme that also takes into account technological, organizational, and environmental aspects. Researchers have found evidence that some features do help create value in e-business. The relationships, on the other hand, aren't all the same, indicating that organizational and environmental factors influence them.
This research developed and empirically validated a theoretical model for quantifying the impacts of technological, organizational, and environmental factors on the value of e-business at the firm level using data from a multicountry survey. As a result of instrument creation and hypothesis testing, they discovered six different parts of the overall framework. Some of these variables (for example, business size and regulatory environment) have varying effects in different economic conditions. According to this study, the state of the economy has an impact on e-business transformation. The empirical data further highlight the importance of technological integration. In respect to the ongoing debate on the sources of e-business value creation, their findings provide empirical proof that such sources are inventive front-end functionality and tight back- end integration. This study's data was not limited to a single country, unlike other previous studies. A large data set of 612 companies from ten countries were used to examine how economic conditions influence the impact of e-business on firm performance. The sample comprises developed, emerging, and newly industrialized countries, which increases the generalizability of the model and conclusions. According to the authors' knowledge, this is the first time a comprehensive database has been constructed for evaluating aspects that influence e-business value. IT, business environments, and organizational performance all have complicated interrelationships,
and our research only scratches the surface. These preliminary findings, according to the authors, will serve as an inspiration for others to carry out greater research in this vital area.
Research shows that isolating the decision to conduct a guilt-inducing activity from its actual execution lessens the guilt felt while performing, according to Duke, Kristen Elizabeth (2019), who wrote: "How the Structure of Choices Influences Consumer Decisions and Experiences." This concept is based on the creation of a dynamic model that splits guilt into two distinct categories. Choice guilt happens first when someone decides to act or learns that they have already done; action guilt arises later when someone engages in the guilt-inducing behavior. According to results from four experiments and two pilot studies, creating a temporal "choice-enactment gap"
reduces the number of guilt people feel before conducting any action. Consistent with guilt's self-regulatory function, decision enactment gaps encourage excessive consumption and reduce post-behavior atonement. This process of detaching may lessen the burden of guilt, which otherwise diminishes the value of life's events.
However, it may come at the expense of self-control efforts.
According to Braxton, Dominique F. (2019), “Consumer Responses to the Use of Technology-Based Self-Service: A Self-Determination Theory Perspective,”, Technology and new ways of communicating with customers are transforming the retail industry. Retail brick-and-mortar settings must change to keep up with changing client demands and wants as a result of digital innovation. Despite consumer demands for in- store technology that facilitates a seamless shopping experience, retailers are still in the early stages of digital store transformation.
This study's findings showed some of the benefits of adopting technology-based self-service in physical retail outlets, as well as the significance of sticking to a digital retail transformation. During the purchase process, clients felt more in control and more comfortable making decisions while using technology-based self-service. Customers' attitudes toward control and decision-making confidence were examined in light of individual differences in technological aptitude and interaction demands when utilizing technology-based self-service. Because most scientific research on consumer use of self-service technology has concentrated on pre-requisites such as technology readiness and adoption or post-shopping experiences with POS self-service, these questions filled
a need in consumer behavior literature. This dissertation, on the other hand, focused on the implications that customers encountered after using technology-based self-service to complete purchasing tasks.
It was anticipated that customers who used technology-based self-service to execute mid-shopping chores (such as navigating or buying a product) felt more in control and thus more comfortable with their purchases. It also looked into customer disparities in terms of technical knowledge and the need for engagement. Consumer technological knowledge was also expected to mediate the relationship between technology-based self-service and perceived control and decision ease, with more tech- savvy customers reporting higher perceived control and decision comfort than their less tech-savvy counterparts. According to the research, customers with a lower need for interaction had greater perceived control and choice ease than those with a higher need for interaction. Six distinct studies found that employing technology to fulfill mid- shopping chores improved customer attitudes about control and decision-making comfort, but only when customers believed they were tech-savvy or had no need for interaction. When the Chinese government's capacity to manage environmental problems in West China was limited, a range of "non-state actors" emerged to augment government efforts or provide alternative channels for dealing with environmental difficulties, according to Young, Oran, Jing, Yijia, et al. (2018). What is the connection between this trend and our attempts to understand it, and China's environmental governance processes?
Environmental challenges in China are being addressed through institutionalized governance processes that differ from Western processes in significant ways, with important ramifications for both domestic environmental governance practices and Chinese governance "going abroad." Government processes in China are rife with "shadow of the state" issues, making it difficult to separate the government from other institutions when trying to solve environmental problems. Shiye Danwei (“public service units”), She Hui Tuanti (“social associations”), and e-platforms, all of which have tight ties to the state, occupy the area inhabited by non - governmental actors in Western systems. On the other hand, international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and multinational companies (MNCs) have a significant impact in China. As a result, the methods of influence used in China are vastly different from
those used in the West. This finding has far-reaching consequences for anybody seeking to solve global environmental concerns, given the importance of China's booming economy and increasing trade network.
Shaheen, Susan, Ph.D., and Chan, Nelson in their study of “Mobility and the Sharing Economy: Potential to Overcome First- and Last-Mile Public Transit Connections” (2016) showed that shared mobility, a part of the sharing economy, allowed users to obtain transportation services on a short-term basis and only when they required them. Carpooling, bike-ride sharing, on-demand transportation services, and micro transit are transforming how people get around and link to other forms of transportation, especially in urban sectors. Additionally, pooled automated vehicles may make such links to public transportation easier, resulting in a substantial transition in transportation from personal to ride-sharing. For further discussion on automated vehicles, many environmental, socioeconomic, and mobility advantages of shared transportation services have been established, such as a reduction in vehicle distance driven, automotive use, and private car ownership. This has been proved in the case of carpooling and public ride-sharing, but additional research is needed to fully comprehend the implications of on-demand ride services. Multiple shared mobility services were created to serve as connectors to public transportation, grabbing the potential to serve first- and last-mile trips. At train stations, major trials have featured carpooling and bike-ride sharing. As a result, public transportation authorities are becoming more interested in the multi-modal assimilation of shared mobility services and are developing and implementing it. Bay Area Bike Share is a public bike ride- sharing program in the San Francisco Bay Area that began in August 2013 to connect riders to various regional and local and regional rail systems such as Caltrain, BART, and MUNI. Furthermore, in July 2016, the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) debuted a public motorbike vehicle sharing system with 1,000 bikes and 65 stations. The first system centered on connecting to Metro Rail stations in Downtown Los Angeles, but it quickly extended to 4,000 bikes in ten Los Angeles County cities. Numerous different systems have been introduced through close cooperation between municipalities, departments of transportation, air quality control districts, bike-sharing crews, and other promoters, but Los Angeles' framework was the very first public motorbike-sharing system in North America implemented explicitly
by a public transit entity. In comparison to carpooling and motorbike sharing, localities and governmental entities have voiced conflicting emotions about the prospects of ride- sharing in metropolitan settings. While some tried to outlaw ride-sharing services, others saw it as a way to supplement the current public transportation system. A neighborhood of Orlando, Florida, initiated a test program in March 2016 to support Uber rides inside the city and to and from its commuting rail station. Despite the benefits and prospects of shared mobility, obstacles remained, specifically in the field of public policy.
States and municipalities have struggled to create and revise rules that keep up with ride-sharing technologies while also tackling public health and safety, coverage and accountability, and fair labor practices. Equity is still a mystery; early anecdotal data suggests that below-average income people don't have enough access to this ride- sharing platform. As a result of these concerns, authorities and companies are examining whether ride-sharing drivers should be categorized as private independent contractors or employees. Investigating public-private partnerships, such as the Ride KC: Bridj pilot, which makes use of vehicles and drivers provided by the Kansas City Area Transportation Authority, may help resolve labor issues. Automatic automobiles are changing mobility and plugging holes in the current network link, making first and last-mile connectivity possible through public car sharing. No one knows for sure yet what influence ride-sharing research and development has on commute times and emissions. More research is warranted to comprehend the long-term consequences of this new and rapidly increasing industry's intersection with public transport services.
According to Pamela Samuelson's study, "What Effects Do Legal Rules Have on Service Innovation," intellectual property copyright, contract agreement, and litigation laws all have an impact on the extent of advancement in the service industry.
Legal constraints that are too harsh or too stringent may deter development in the service sector and its innovation, while laws that are too feeble or too lenient may lead to substandard expenditure in sound innovation. In the manufacturing industry, intellectual property rights protections have generally been relatively strong, but in the service industry, they have become much weaker. Services, as an example, have long been unpatentable due to their presumed non-technological nature. The question as to whether new digital facilities, such as internet services, should be subject to copyright