e-government and public service transformation

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E-GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC SERVICE TRANSFORMATION TOWARDS A NEW CIVIL SERVICE ARCHITECTURE OF

NEPAL

Varun Amatya

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Development Administration)

School of Public Administration

National Institute of Development Administration 2021

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E-GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC SERVICE TRANSFORMATION TOWARDS A NEW CIVIL SERVICE ARCHITECTURE OF

NEPAL Varun Amatya

School of Public Administration

Major Advisor (Associate Professor Pairote Pathranarakul, Ph.D.)

The Examining Committee Approved This Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Development Administration).

Committee Chairperson (Associate Professor Sirapatsorn Wongthongdee, Ph.D.)

Committee (Associate Professor Pairote Pathranarakul, Ph.D.)

Committee (Associate Professor Achakorn Wongpreedee, Ph.D.)

Dean (Associate Professor Ploy Suebvises, Ph.D.)

_____/_____/_____

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ABSTRACT

Title of Dissertation E-GOVERNMENT AND PUBLIC SERVICE TRANSFORMATION TOWARDS A NEW CIVIL SERVICE ARCHITECTURE OF NEPAL

Author Varun Amatya

Degree Doctor of Philosophy (Development Administration)

Year 2021

Digital governance in Nepal and elsewhere is perceived with much expectation and with some hopes of quality service. People anticipate a more inclusive and democratic society in which they can expect door-to-door services at any time and from any location. The lack of a well-defined organizational structure, a limited monitoring system, and various socio-political perspectives have necessitated a study of (e)- government in public organizations. The goal of the study was to look at how information and communication technology-based governance has influenced the transformation of public service delivery mechanisms in Nepal's civil service. The present governance system is facing different problems to deliver quality service to the people. The study has concentrated on exploring and assessing the pattern of the transformation of public service delivery mechanisms in digital form and the ways of shifting from a unitary central governance system to a federal model.

A mixed-methods cross-sectional exploratory-cum-descriptive case study was conducted to analyze the knowledge, perception, and current practices of (e)governance through civil administration. The problem statement for this study was to determine the extent to which e-government system architecture has influenced Nepal's civil service in terms of efficiency, effectiveness, impact, relevance, and sustainability in order to evaluate the transformation of public service. By reviewing different works of literature, theses, theories, national and international journals related to e-governance, leadership, and management, the researcher made the study substantive and authentic by incorporating relevant ideas. The researcher used a descriptive cross-sectional premise that included ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions in both quantitative and qualitative study designs. Regarding the subject of excellent public service in Ministries, the ontological framework for this study subscribes to the

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notion of various realities. Civil service personnel and stakeholders were the main actors of this study.

The study revealed a relatively lower degree of quality e-service below the the expected level of readiness of civil personnel in all categories of Ministries. With respect to the selected components of the administrative characteristics, commitment displayed the highest level of leadership readiness. The results illustrated that knowledge differed by ethnic background, age maturity, and educational degree. With varying levels of understanding, conduct, and perspective, tribe, standard of knowledge, profession, and religious faith were found to be diverse. Most of the city personnel had knowledge about the contribution of technology in transforming the public services from unitary to the federal model. Youths, women, poor people, people with disabilities, and veterans benefitted more from the system. The results corresponded to national and worldwide trends.

Even while current initiatives promoted e-governance in the Ministries via digital Nepal policy, knowledge awareness, and boosting resource availability, circulation, and delivery of assistance in technical kits, greater support for institutional reforms was anticipated. In reality, due to a lack of proper infrastructure, the majority of the digital Nepal initiatives were considered to be insufficient. The study also indicated that quality management has a closer relationship with several factors including the technological strengths, participatory approach of management, and competencies in human resources management and development. The study has philosophical, and management implications and implications for different civil service actors.

The study was concluded by feeling the need for knowledge and institutional capacity building of civil personnel for the promotion of e-services not only for elites, but also in the poor communities. Growing misuse of digital tags and manipulation of technology felt the need for improvement in the cybersecurity system.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I'd want to express my gratitude to Associate Professor Dr. Pairote Pathranarakul, my adviser and committee chair, for his guidance during my work on this project. I'd also like to thank committee chairperson Associate Professor Dr. Sirapatsorn Wongthongdee of Dhurakij Pundit University's Faculty of Public Administration and committee member Associate Professor Dr. Achakorn Wongpredee of NIDA's Graduate School of Public Administration for their suggestions on how to make my research more academic. I'd like to express my gratitude to the officers and personnel of the Graduate School of Public Administration for their assistance throughout my time at NIDA. I'd also want to thank Dr. Roj Nath Pande, Committee Secretary – Federal Parliament of Nepal, for assisting me with source data. I'd want to express my gratitude to Christina Madelina Dan, my editor, for her tireless efforts in reading my work and pointing out flaws and inaccuracies.

Varun Amatya November 2021

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT ... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ... vi

LIST OF TABLES ... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ... xiii

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ... xv

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ... 1

1.1 Background ... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ... 3

1.3 Research Objectives ... 4

1.4 Research Questions ... 5

1.5 Rationale and Significance of the Study ... 5

1.6 Limitations of the Study ... 7

1.7 Organization of the Study ... 8

1.8 Chapter Summary ... 9

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ... 10

2.1 Introduction ... 10

2.2 Thematic Review ... 10

2.2.1Government to E-Governance ... 10

2.2.2Human Resource Management ... 11

2.2.3ICT Development and Nepal's Readiness ... 12

2.2.4Models of E-Government and Trust in the System ... 14

2.2.5Trust in Technology ... 15

2.2.6Ethics in E-Government ... 16

2.2.7Situation of Public Service Delivery through Civil Service in Nepal ... 16

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2.2.8Types of Public Services Provided by Government Agencies ... 19

2.3 Policy Review ... 19

2.3.1Development of IT Policy and Creation of Legal Instruments ... 19

2.3.2Institutional Mechanism of Implementing ICT ... 20

2.3.3Strategic Framework for Implementation of E-Government ... 21

2.3.4Legal and Regulatory Framework ... 22

2.3.5ICT Master Plan (2013-2017) ... 23

2.4 Theoretical Review ... 23

2.4.1System Theory in E-governance ... 23

2.4.2E-governance under Scientific Management Theory ... 27

2.4.3Human Relations Theory ... 28

2.4.4Goal-Setting Theory and Implications to Information Technology ... 28

2.4.5Theories Related to Providing Public Services ... 29

2.4.6Evaluation Principles of Development Interventions ... 29

2.5 Review of Contemporary Research Studies ... 31

2.6 Existing Knowledge, Gaps, and Lapses ... 45

2.7 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework ... 46

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ... 48

3.1 Introduction ... 48

3.2 Nature of the Research ... 48

3.3 Research Design ... 49

3.4 Population, Sampling, and Sampling Criteria ... 50

3.5 Data Collection ... 52

3.5.1Key Informant Interview ... 52

3.5.2Site Observation ... 53

3.5.3Focus Group Discussion ... 53

3.6 Data Analysis and Interpretation ... 54

3.7 The Trustworthiness of the Research Findings ... 54

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3.7.1The Validity and Reliability of the Data ... 55

3.7.2The Role of the Researcher ... 56

CHAPTER 4 PORTRAYAL OF CIVIL SERVICE ARCHITECTURE IN NEPAL . 58 4.1 Geographical Location ... 58

4.2 Population and Religion ... 58

4.3 Economic Status ... 59

4.4 Political System ... 59

4.5 Civil Service of Nepal ... 60

4.6 Participation in Civil Service of Nepal ... 61

4.7 The Access in Civil Service Sector ... 67

4.8 New Experiences ... 70

CHAPTER 5 E-GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC SERVICE TRANSFORMATION 72 5.1 Nature and Composition of the Participants ... 72

5.2 Inclusion and Empowerment: A Case of MOLESS (Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social Security ... 83

5.3 Alternative Approach to Social Cohesion: A Case of MOPIT (Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and Transport) ... 93

5.4 Human Capital Formation: A Case of MOEST (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology) ... 98

5.5 Boosting Public Service Delivery: A Case of MOF and NPC (Ministry of Finance and National Planning Commission) ... 101

5.6 Holistic Development Approaches: A Case of MOCIT (Ministry of Communication and Information Technology) ... 104

5.7 ICT Intervention for E-Governance Improvement ... 108

5.8 Moving Ahead in Leadership Transformation ... 110

5.9 Quality Service Delivery and Employee Empowerment ... 117

CHAPTER 6 LEADERSHIP READINESS FOR E-GOVERNANCE TRANSFORMATION ... 121

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6.1 Administrative Characteristics ... 121

6.2 System’s Support ... 127

6.3 Leadership Behavior ... 129

6.4 Assessment for Team Building and Leading ... 134

6.5 Team Building ... 134

6.6 The Problems of Leadership in E-Governance ... 135

6.7 Corrective Measures to Enhance Quality E-service ... 138

6.8 Interpreting the Results ... 140

6.9 Assessment of the Problems and Solutions to Leadership Practice ... 141

CHAPTER 7 THE THEORETICAL REFLECTIONS ... 143

7.1 Gender Perspective of Civil Service Employees in Nepalese Society ... 143

7.2 Comparative Perspective of Civil Service Management ... 144

7.3 Cross Case Discussion ... 150

7.4 Transformation of Public Service Institutional Leadership ... 153

7.5 Optimizing Resource Manipulation and Coping with Challenges ... 155

7.6 Screening through the Lens of Antithesis ... 160

7.7 Theorization ... 161

CHAPTER 8 REEL IN EFFECTIVENESS AND IMPROVEMENT ... 164

8.1 Summary ... 164

8.2 Conclusion ... 169

8.3 Contributions of the Research ... 172

8.4 Implications ... 174

8.5 Recommendations for Further Research ... 180

BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 183

APPENDICES ... 191

APPENDIX A Research Tools ... 192

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APPENDIX B E-Government Development Index ... 215 BIOGRAPHY ... 225

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Page

Table 1.1 Organization of the Thesis ... 8

Table 2.1 Evaluation Criteria of Development Intervention ... 30

Table 3.1 Population and Sample Location ... 51

Table 3.2 Population and Sample Size for the Study ... 51

Table 4.1 Level-Wise Civil Service Employee Record of Nepal in 2003 ... 61

Table 4.3 Service-Wise Civil Service Employee Record of Nepal in 2020 ... 64

Table 4.5 Representation in Civil Service ... 67

Table 4.6 Applicants in Civil Service in the Past Three Years ... 68

Table 5.1 Occupational Status of Respondents... 73

Table 5.2 The Alternative Modality of E-Governance and Digitization ... 74

Table 5.3 Official Status of the Respondents ... 75

Table 5.4 Age Group, Gender, and Type of Services of the Employees ... 77

Table 5.5 Economic Status of Employees ... 78

Table 5.6 Yearly Saving Status of Employees ... 79

Table 5.7 Reasons for Good Economic Status ... 81

Table 5.8 Reasons for Weak Economic Status ... 82

Table 5.9 Expectation of Employees ... 83

Table 5.10 Purpose of Social Security Schemes ... 86

Table 5.11 Alternative Solutions from Reform in E-Governance of MOPIT ... 96

Table 5.12 Impact of E-Governance under MOEST ... 98

Table 5.13 Techniques of E-Service Delivery ... 101

Table 5.14 Techniques of E-Service Delivery in MOF and NPC ... 104

Table 5.15 Training Opportunities of MOCIT ... 107

Table 5.16 Techniques of E-Service Delivery in MOCIT ... 107

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Table 5.17 The Advantages of E-Governance Intervention ... 110

Table 5.18 Client’s Reaction as Rated by Employees about E-Services ... 111

Table 5.19 The Merging and Resizing of the E-Service Centers ... 112

Table 5.20 Support of Government Authorities to E-Governance Intervention ... 112

Table 5.21 Future Plans of Government for E-Governance ... 113

Table 5.22 Support on Skills Development ... 114

Table 5.23 The Poverty Alleviation Strategy to Poor People through E-Governance ... 117

Table 6.1 Average Result to Administrative Characteristics ... 122

Table 6.2 ANOVA: Results of the Participants Rated Administrative Characteristics ... 122

Table 6.3 Pearson’s Coefficients of Correlation of Administrative Characteristics . 124 Table 6.4 Participants Rated Results of the System’s Support ... 127

Table 6.5 t-test of Chief Executives vs. Followers’ Responses on System’s Support ... 128

Table 6.6 Basis of Analysis of the Leadership Behavior ... 130

Table 6.7 Leadership Behavior ... 130

Table 6.8 t-test Results of the Leadership Behavior ... 133

Table 6.9 Chief Executives Perceived Problems ... 136

Table 6.10 Chief Executives Perceived Corrective Measures ... 138

Table 7.1 Stakeholder Influence and Dependency Matrix ... 149

Table 7.2 Key Public Service System Values ... 152

Table 7.3 Objectives of the Civil Service System ... 154

Table 8.1 Themes from Fieldwork ... 167

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Page

Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework of the Research ... 46

Figure 3.1 Mixed Method Research Design ... 50

Figure 4.1 Status of Civil Service Personnel in Sample Districts ... 69

Figure 5.1 Trend of Education Level of Respondents ... 76

Figure 5.2 Economic Status of Employees ... 78

Figure 5.3 Trends of Economic Status of the Employees ... 80

Figure 5.4 Benefits of Public Service Reform Schemes ... 87

Figure 5.5 Relation of E-Governance Reform ... 88

Figure 5.6 The Status of E-Governance in MOPIT ... 94

Figure 5.7 The Impact of E-Governance in MOPIT ... 95

Figure 5.8 Consequences of E-Governance in MOPIT ... 96

Figure 5.9 Techniques of E-Service Delivery in MOPIT ... 97

Figure 5.10 Possible Solutions of Reform in E-Governance of MOEST ... 99

Figure 5.11 Training Opportunities in E-Governance under MOEST ... 100

Figure 5.12 Impact of E-Governance Activities in MOF and NPC ... 102

Figure 5.13 Reform in E-Governance of MOF and NPC ... 103

Figure 5.14 Status of the HRD in MOCIT ... 105

Figure 5.15 Impact of E-Governance Intervention from MOCIT ... 106

Figure 5.16 The Nature of E-Governance Approaches in ICT Master Plan ... 109

Figure 5.17 The Participation of Excluded Poor People in E-Governance Management ... 115

Figure 5.18 Benefits Received by Excluded and Poor People through E-Governance ... 116

Figure 6.1 Chief Executive Perceived Leadership Behavior ... 131

Figure 6.2 Employee Perceived Leadership Behavior ... 132

Figure 6.3 Combined Perception of Leadership Behavior ... 133

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Figure 7.1 Integrated Approach of Public Service Management ... 157 Figure 7.2 Holistic Approach to Development of Public Services ... 159 Figure 7.3 REEL in Effectiveness and Improvement ... 162

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Abbreviation Equivalence

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

CBOs Community-Based Organizations

CBS Central Bureau of Statistics

DDCs District Development Committees

DFO Direct Field Observation

FGD Focus Group Discussion

GoN Government of Nepal

HRM/D Human Resource Management/Development

I/NGOs International / Non-governmental Organizations

LDO Local Development Officer

MOCIT Ministry of Communication, Information and

Technology

MOEST Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

MOF Ministry of Finance

MOLESS Ministry of Labor, Employment and Social

Security

MOPIT Ministry of Physical Infrastructure and

Transportation

NPA National Plan of Action

NPC/ N National Planning Commission of Nepal

PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal

REEL Readiness of Employees for Effective

Leadership

SD Standard Deviation

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science

UN United Nations

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INTRODUCTION

This thesis deals with the topic of public debate on the issue of e-government and public service transformation, which originates from Nepal's legacy of giving service to the people through a new civil service architecture. The present researcher began the study by reflecting on the context of quality service using the digital mechanism. The first chapter of the study focused on governance reform, with the formulation of the problem statement, study purpose, research questions, rationale and significance, scope and limitation, and thesis organization. This thesis analyzes the cases of selected officers among the different ministries and their departments following the mixed-method approaches.

1.1 Background

An organization, in the present context, is an assembly of different factors and components mobilized together for the sake of achieving an intended goal. The combination of all the efforts aimed at achieving the organizational goal using technology. E-governance is the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in government to increase management performance, deliver efficient public services, and promote democratic principles in the day-to-day operations of the civil service (Gil-Garci & Luna-Reyes, 2003, p. 213). E-governance emphasizes four important pillars or components including people, process, technology, and resource in public service. The civil organizations in Nepal, though they have a very short history of structured operation, are also practicing the use of ICT. To trust e-government, citizens should have a reasonable level of faith in government and the Internet (Teo &

Srivastava, 2009, p. 34). Although empirical data shows that individuals' faith in the internet is increasing, citizens' confidence in government has plummeted in the last thirty years. At a basic level, the government and citizens misunderstand and distrust

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one other (Bach & Kaufman, 2009, p. 56). As a result, if citizens do not trust government public service programs and plans before they are implemented, they are unlikely to obtain adequate trust afterward.

The lack of public awareness of the potential advantages of e-government has resulted in a decline in e-government acceptance and implementation (Pilling &

Boeltzig, 2007, p. 89). In Canada, Singapore, Dubai, and the Netherlands, communication had a favorable impact on the uptake of e-government services (Teerling & Pieterson, 2009, p. 154). To raise individuals' awareness, knowledge, perceptions, and trust in e-government services, effective and focused communication is required. Even though communication channels differ in terms of qualities and audience, governments frequently adopt a policy of broadcasting the same information over all media, disregarding consumers' preferences (Ebbers, 2007; Teerling &

Pieterson, 2009). The Internet has surpassed all other communication channels as the most popular mode of interaction. However, social media has recently achieved massive global appeal, establishing itself as one of the most popular communication platforms on the Internet. In December 2009, there were 300 million unique visits to social networking websites around the world (Nielsonwire, 2010).

Despite some indicators of progress in ICT infrastructure development, Nepal's e-governance for public service delivery was still in its early stages. Lack of optimal leadership flourished with an unstable government. The issues hindering e-governance implementation are motivation, the commitment of staff, technological and geographical digital divide, ICT infrastructure, and financial insufficiency (MOE, 2013).

With a population of 28 million people, Nepal ranks under one of the world's least developed countries. (Shakya, 2009). Nepal differs from wealthy countries economically, socially, and culturally. As a result, developing countries like Nepal may have distinct social media usage habits than their developed-country counterparts. More notably, through an ADB technical support initiative, the Asian Development Bank (ADB) provided a grant of $25 million for the implementation of the ICT Development Project (ADB, 2006). The goal of the project was to strengthen the legal, regulatory, and institutional framework to increase ICT accessibility and implement e-government applications per the e-government master plan's roadmap. As a result, before investing

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millions of dollars in e-government initiatives, it is vital to determine whether the current climate is conducive to the implementation of e-government.

Due to political instability, insufficient human resources, a substandard legal framework, a lack of public awareness about ICT, and poor and weak ICT infrastructure across the country, Nepal has faced numerous challenges in introducing and implementing e-government practices for transforming public service modalities. ICT resources in governmental departments were not properly utilized due to a lack of integrated planning. Most government officials believe that if ICT is incorporated into their working environment in civil service, they will lose their employment or have less administrative influence. As a result, they appear to be resistive to the reform of the civil service through e-government.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

System delivery practice has been a major issue in Nepalese civil service for providing public services to poor people. People have no choice, but to receive public service under the poor infrastructure of offices where people must wait in line under the scorching sun and must spend lots of time and effort to get access to public services through a manual and traditional centralized system of public service centers run by civil servants. Government institutions have a poor experience of public service delivery system through civil services. ICT seemed to be used only for formality but in reality, public service was based on traditional methods, devices, and systems so that the management was not able to select capable, qualified, and competent devices in civil services. Transaction between Government (G) and Citizens (C), both ways (i.e., G2C and C2G), Government or business (B), both ways (i.e., G2B and B2G), and Internal government operation (G2G) for a covert operation are all examples of e- governance. Through the mail and Internet-based social networks, Business to Citizen (B2C) aims to simplify and improve governmental workflow while also allowing people to participate in governance.

In a country like Nepal, where many activities in public service are carried out manually and the use of technology is minimal, the role of human resources always remains crucial. Inefficiency, buck-passing, corruption, delay, nepotism-favoritism,

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lack of responsibility, low capability, and lack of dedication have all been leveled against the Nepalese bureaucracy (Dangal, 2005). Making public administration more productive, efficient, cost-effective, service-oriented, transparent, and initiative-taking, as well as growing it as a responsible and successful organization, has proven to be a difficult endeavor (NPC, 2002).

As a result, the goal of this research is to determine the pattern of public service transformation in Nepalese civil service and determine whether the problem is caused by a lack of fairness in the system, a misperception of the system architecture by employees, or a lack of use of the system database in the decision-making process. The problem statement for this study is to what degree have e-government and ICT-based system architecture been influential in the civil service of Nepal in terms of leadership readiness and transformation of the system architecture for quality in public service delivery.

1.3 Research Objectives

The primary objective of this study is to find the root cause of poor delivery of public service and civil service system failure, and the ways of public service transformation using ICT in e-government architecture. This study has the following specific objectives:

1) To identify key problems/constraints in the current civil service system of Nepal (focusing on the quality of public service and digital platform, especially infrastructure, public trust, information inequality, and gender issues related to public service).

2) To identify key problems/constraints in the current civil service system of Nepal focusing access and quality of the service.

3) To analyze the influence of ICT-based e-government on the transformation of public service delivery mechanisms through the civil service in Nepal.

4) To assess the leadership readiness for the ICT-based system architecture model of civil service for transforming the federal model of public service delivery in Nepal.

The study aimed at finding out the answers to the following research questions:

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1.4 Research Questions

1) What are the mechanisms of the civil service system under e-government based system architecture practice for transforming public service delivery?

2) How have the ICT tools been implemented in Nepalese Civil service architecture to facilitate efficient and effective public service delivery?

3) How is leadership readiness for ICT-backed civil service architecture functioning in terms of administrative characteristics, system support, and leadership behavior?

4) Why are the abilities of Nepalese civil service in crisis towards effective public service delivery, and how can civil service be transformed under the federal restructuring of the state?

5) What are the problems and prospects to enhance the public service delivery mechanism through the e-government based civil service of Nepal?

6) What are the determinants of satisfaction regarding public service delivery in Nepal?

1.5 Rationale and Significance of the Study

Public service management has been one of the most important processes in civil service delivery mechanisms (Aravind, 2009). People accept it as a managerial process that links organizational objectives, quality standards, and evaluation, to which the delivery review is often applied (Richards, 2003). A fair ICT system may be for the benefit of both organization and employees. People often say that the e-governance systems in Nepalese organizations are not fair and cheap. They may be affected by factors including the short life cycle of ICT devices, the lower capacity of personnel to handle them, and the lack of ICT-friendly policies. There is a wide belief that compared to government organizations, the situation in non-government organizations is far better because of efficient and effective e-governance systems and their fairness. Employees are more aware of their responsibilities, motivated, and result-oriented in non- government organizations. Some non-government organizations have a practice of Management by Objective, which is ultimately related to quality services. The

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transformation of public service delivery under e-governance may help the government systems through the correction of their working performance so that they are capable of competing in the competitive market. Government entities and other organizations need to improve their abilities.

This proposed study may help higher-level management, an employee of public services, people, and the government to develop the ability to analyze problems and to take appropriate actions in solving those problems. This research study may also help e-governance to reduce the cost of production and wastage, which can improve governing ability. Moreover, with the support of this research study, the government system may be successful in anticipating programs. Governance can thus realize the organizational aim, assist national economic progress, and provide well-satisfied service to the people of the country in this way. Finally, this study may provide vital information to national and worldwide researchers, readers, and students.

This study could be useful in advancing the search for a stronger security framework for e-government implementation in Nepal. The research work may help to conceptualize and develop a security framework for e-government implementation in Nepal. The government can adopt the research findings for developing policies for e- governance implementation. Economically poor citizens of Nepal may benefit from e- governance with efficiency and effectiveness. The output may include an accessibility and infrastructure plan, an infrastructure investment plan, the design of selected e- government applications and architecture, and a framework for e-governance that may be applied to the federal structure in Nepal in the future.

The findings of this study could have the following significant impact:

This study could contribute to Nepal's baseline information on civil service architecture and its characteristics in providing public services, as well as its management in various sectors such as information technology, social security, health care, and education, as well as development reform programs. Educational planners, policymakers, and social science specialists may find this research useful.

Similarly, government agencies, NGOs, and INGOs may be invited to contribute to the planning and implementation of the program to be addressed, as well as to improve public service quality in the civil service of the three levels of government (federal, provincial, and local governance).

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Researchers, university faculty, and students may find this study interesting.

The study may bring an insightful analysis of people’s participation in public service management and its impact on the promotion and sustainability measures regarding the management of available resources. It also brings significant results for making long-term public-sector policy concerning equitable benefits sharing among the civil service employees, particularly for the disadvantaged sector of the society focusing on women. The research results can further be crucial for students, researchers, and policymakers to make decisions regarding bringing poor and disadvantaged people within the scope of the policy frame.

1.6 Limitations of the Study

This research study has concerns about the e-governance practice of the Nepalese civil service in the sense that it might not be fully justified quantitatively speaking in many cases. As a result, this study had to limit its scope to resource management which focused on the e-governance practice of public service delivery in Nepal. This study not only focused on the methods of technology-supported governance practices applied by the management, but also on the condition of the Nepalese public service delivery transformation.

There are different types of government entities - small to large, private to government, and public. The study excluded those institutions where at least 200 civil servants are working permanently. The focus of this study was not on other forms of employee motivation, but rather on employee motivation as a result of the service's periodic review and usage in decision-making. This study limited itself to a mixed methodological design especially statistics and exploratory methodology. Although the study was based on primary data, secondary data were also used as per the requirement of the research.

The study focused on the review of policies of public service in civil service management after 1990. Management theories were delimited to the stakeholder management approaches. The study excluded social benefits, civil service leadership role effectiveness of small offices, and extension offices. Civil service organizations with employees of fewer than 100 were excluded as their nature of working and scope

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of involvement were not so large and their functioning was not like the Ministries and Directorates in the locality. The study was limited to community people’s experience of life before and after the availability of public services. The study excluded the other aspects of responsibilities that are associated with public services including the intra - organization services from one ministry to another.

1.7 Organization of the Study

One of the most important aspects of a Ph.D. dissertation is the chapter design.

There are eight chapters in this dissertation. The scope of the investigation, study environment, presentation of the problem, aims of the study, significance of the study, and constraints of the study are covered in the first chapter. The second chapter focuses on existing information and a literature review. The methodology of the study, including research design tools and techniques, data collection processes, population and sample tools and techniques, data analysis, and presentation, is covered in chapter three.

Table 1.1 Organization of the Thesis

Chapter Themes

Chapter 1 Introduction, Research Problem, Purpose of the Study, Research Questions, Rationale, and Chapter Summary

Chapter 2 Comprehensive Literature Review Chapter 3 Research Methodology

Chapter 4 Portrayal of Civil Service Architecture in Nepal

Chapter 5 Empowering Civil Service Employees through Resource Mobilization

Chapter 6 Transformation of Civil Service through Federal Model of Governance

Chapter 7 Theoretical Reflections

Chapter 8 Summary, Conclusion, and Implications

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The main aspects of the research where research data was translated into interpretation and analysis, as well as the presentation of the results, are covered in chapters four, five, and six. The seventh chapter focuses on gap analysis, knowledge development, and a path ahead. The summary, conclusion, and implications of the study findings are included in chapter eight.

1.8 Chapter Summary

The background, problem statement, and purpose of the investigation, as well as the research questions, justification, significance, and limitations of the study, have all been covered in this chapter. The objective of the study and the research questions are the most important considerations when conducting research. A comprehensive answer to the research study's question, as well as its relevance, is required. The criteria for doing this research have been set by limitations. The selected literature reviews relating to this research are presented in the following chapter.

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LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In the literature review, the available works of literature which are from published and unpublished sources of secondary data were selected for the thematic discussion. The literature review provides useful data on the status. This is a fundamental part of research work that describes what research studies were conducted in the past and what remains to be done in the future. The literature review is an important part of research work, which may help with the search for ideas. In this chapter, the related theory and previous studies were reviewed. The reviewed documents are thesis dissertations, books, journals, newspapers, and early published books related to the researcher's study.

2.2 Thematic Review

The related books and journals were carefully reviewed under the different themes including human resource management, Nepalese government, service performance, compensation management, employee career development, public service management, and other relevant themes.

2.2.1 Government to E-Governance

I ICT entails the creative deployment of technical applications to improve governance and service delivery. Every public activity involves the creation, sharing, and transmission of knowledge, as well as communicative elements. The institutionalization of this capability is a sine-qua-non for any public agency to be successful, efficient, inclusive, and responsive in this regard. It is suggested that the advancement of ICT, or e-government, will help public organizations improve their

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capability. With the growing emphasis on public officials' responsibility and system openness, ICT or e-government is seen as a tool for achieving these goals. This is because ICT allows government officials' work to become more regulated, consistent, and dependable. This eliminates ambiguity and confusion in the delivery of services. In administrative literature, four words are frequently used: government, governance, e- government, and e-governance. As a method of assuring development and progress; good governance began to drive policy debates, demanding governments to be transparent and trustworthy. E-governance reinforces the transparency and consistency of government operations. E-government and e-governance are concepts that are frequently used simultaneously. E-government refers to the application of information and communication technology (ICT) to the traditional government to make it more accessible, transparent, functional, and responsible. Building solutions around citizens' choices, attempting to make government and its services more approachable, generating social integration that gives information responsibly, and using Information Technology and human resources effectively and efficiently are among the UN's five guiding principles for e-government (United Nations, 2002).

E-government does not imply the addition of more laptops and processors to government workers' desks, and it is far more than a government website on the Internet. Simply put, ‘e-governance' is viewed through the lens of two significant socio- economic transitions: governance and the information revolution. It supports and encourages good governance through electronic means. The introduction of ICTs, along with a strong wave of globalization, has had a significant impact on the evolution of the concept of e-governance. E-governance is influenced by political, social, economic, and technological factors as well as the use of ICTs. The other goal, ‘efficient government,' aids government operations by facilitating a quick, transparent, responsible, efficient, and effective procedure for carrying out government administration tasks. The result could be significant cost reductions (per transaction) in government operations.

2.2.2 Human Resource Management

An organizational entity is formed to achieve certain objectives that can only be achieved via human endeavor. People are the most important aspect of every organization because, without them, it would be like a statue. Human capital is the

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people who work for the company. Human resources, according to Dhungel (2010), are the individuals that an organization hires to do various jobs, tasks, and responsibilities in exchange for pay, income, and other benefits.

Employees are directionless without organizational rules, norms, regulations, culture and other supervision, hence human resource management refers to the division that oversees a company's employees. Human resource management, according to Eisenberg (2007), is how organizations acquire, choose, train, and build organizational personnel. Human resource management planning, acquisition, choosing, training and development, integration, and promotions, removals, layoffs, and separations are all part of the HRM process, according to Dhungel (2010) and Eisenberg (2007).

2.2.3 ICT Development and Nepal's Readiness

In Nepal, e-governance has only been in use for a short time. E-governance is supposed to enhance the government's good governance activities by increasing efficiency and effectiveness, improving information communication and service delivery systems through ICTs, and supporting the growth and development of the country's Information Communication industry. Infrastructure development, reform of the law and public policy, creating e-literacy, strengthening accessibility, protecting privacy and security, and developing the workforce are all needed to achieve the e- governance program. Furthermore, the leadership is strongly committed to the development, with a focus on strategic investing, teamwork, and public engagement.

After developing plans to alter the governance process, the government must be ready to face the substantial difficulties and possibilities that may occur during execution. The Government of Nepal (GoN) has taken many steps to support Nepal's ICT initiative, including creating an IT policy and enacting legal mechanisms and planning processes.

E-readiness is characterized as the capacity to use information and communication technologies (ICT) to advance one's economy and wellbeing. The Economist Intelligence Unit publishes an annual ranking of countries' e-readiness subject to six pillars of e-readiness: connectivity and technology infrastructure, business environment, social and cultural environment, legal environment, government policy, and vision and consumer and business adoption. The E-Readiness Index is a technique that assesses a population's ability to use ICTs by determining how many

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individuals possess the essential skills and how ICTs are presently utilized. For illustration, out of 20 countries, South Korea ranks first with an e-readiness score of 0.2725, while Nepal ranks 150th with an e-readiness score of 0.2725. In a comparison of SAARC region countries, Nepal ranks seventh out of eight countries in terms of e- readiness (index is 0.2725). The Maldives' e-readiness index is 0.4491, placing it first among SAARC countries, while Sri Lanka is second with 0.4244 indices. Nepal has a low e-readiness index when compared to the other eight SAARC countries, and it may be difficult to implement e-government in the country as a result (GON, Economic Survey, 2018).

No government policy or program may accomplish the desired effects. Because the Nepalese civil service is renowned for being efficient but absent from duty, motivation is critical when developing public service regulations and conditions.

Additionally, it is frequently stated that it is difficult to find an answer to the topic of why one must strive to perform to satisfy the growing expectations of ordinary citizens who have long been disappointed by government policies and programs. Given that such policies and programs have failed to bring about beneficial improvements in the lives of ordinary people on a scale that human beings can achieve, there is no other path forward than to enhance the governance system and make it more effective and efficient. As a result, the government apparatus must be both efficient and motivated.

Human resource management based on performance has emerged as a critical factor to consider while establishing the conditions for government services (Poudel, 2012)

In Nepal, the e-preparation index, the e-government index, the infrastructure index and infrastructure architecture index, the online service index, the human capital index, and the e-participation index all have very low rankings. There are numerous obstacles to implementing e-government in Nepal. As a result, a vision and objectives are required for the efficient implementation of e-government in Nepal. To achieve the vision and objectives, obstacles in the implementation of e-government must be overcome. Additionally, a conducive atmosphere for the effective deployment of e- governance in Nepal must be created. Nepal has established a conceptual framework for the effective deployment of e-government. The conceptual framework is critical for effective delivery and resolution of difficulties (Kharel & Shakya, 2012).

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In today's world, e-government is a buzzword that has successfully altered the way we live and work. Numerous steps aimed at utilizing ICT as a tool for development have been implemented; Nepal has made progress, but it is insufficient. While Nepal has made considerable progress in terms of network coverage, establishing a fast and stable internet connection remains a big difficulty. Given Nepal's tough geographic topography, high investment, and political leaders' hesitation, the country has a long way to go before it can trade the digital gap for a digital dividend. should encourage the general public sector to effectively employ ICT to advance e-government. Currently, the bulk of the Asian nation's ministries, divisions, and various government agencies are heavily involved, if not entirely, in the e-government agenda. They are gradually becoming equipped with ICTs, but this instrumentation does not appear to be tightly coupled with the essential objectives and duties of public administration (Sapkota, 2018).

2.2.4 Models of E-Government and Trust in the System

Various e-governance models are in the application, and the majority of them represent the status of e-government in terms of technological soundness and service capabilities. They show the possibility of interaction with the web portal and web content. Infrastructural readiness is another important aspect presented in these models, and they have a similarity in describing and projecting the way that e-government provides services to citizens. Models all somehow present linear and progressive steps of e-government describing from online presence to transformed e-government stage.

Some models of e-government are Layne and Lee's model of e-government;

institutional, structural, and procedural arrangements were made for this purpose. These instruments are briefly presented in the following paragraph.

Citizens' faith in government is founded on their expectations from previous contacts with government entities (Zucker, 1986). Relationship trust and institutional trust are two types of government trust, according to - (Papadakis, 1999). The total of citizens' faith in the government's competence, compassion, and honesty is known as relationship trust (Mayer, 1995). Citizens' perceptions of the government's technological and organizational capabilities to execute e-government are tied to competence (Mishra, 1996). The concept that governments work in the best interests of

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citizens is referred to as benevolence (Cummings & Bromiley, 1996). Integrity in governance is defined as the government's honesty and follow-through on promises (Sheppard & Sherman, 1998). In contrast, institutional trust relates to citizens' perceptions of an institutional framework such as the Internet (McKnight, 2002).

Legislative initiatives such as the establishment and compliance of cyber laws, encryption regulations, and the freedom to information legislation are all catalysts to improve institutional confidence.

People need to believe that the politicians they elect have addressed their problems and acted in their best interests to improve their welfare and "quality of life."

This is becoming increasingly crucial in multi-level government systems, where service delivery efficacy and efficiency must be maximized. If citizens are unable to participate in government and transparent decision-making, this fosters corruption, undermines good governance, and erodes social and economic opportunities. When government employees pass on democracy, it benefits national development more than anything else, and it strengthens democracy in the truest sense at the grassroots level (Acharya, 2015).

2.2.5 Trust in Technology

Citizens' faith in technology can be separated into two subcategories: belief in the Internet's "competence" and "perceived risk" (McKnight, 2002). Competence trust grows with continuing use of e-government operations, whereas perceived risk can be mitigated by establishing institution-based trust through the creation of technological security policies (Backhouse, 2005). The public is hesitant to embrace e-government not only because they distrust government, but also due to their distrust of the technology (Internet) employed for e-government (Mayer, 1995). It's fair to assume that e-government adoption and implementation will be hampered until citizens have a high degree of trust in the government and the online portal (Carter & Belanger, 2006).

Consequently, residents may elect not to use the technology or revert to the more conventional offline methods of communicating with the government (Teo &

Srivastava, 2004). Scenarios contribute to e-government adoption and total collaborative integration between government and people, both of which help to improve the performance of e-government programs in which collaborative citizens

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utilize government only just for the sake of collaboration while avoiding e-government wherever possible. Subsequently, competition produces unexpected and intermittent results, as well as a low rate of adoption that is hostile, resulting in utter failure.

2.2.6 Ethics in E-Government

By supporting the efficient delivery of government services, e-governance ethics, therefore, provide the blueprint for the use of electronic records and electronic signatures in government organizations and departments. E-governance facilitates a transparent, faster, more proactive, and nonhierarchical method of government, which leads to better governance. Better administration leads to more effective management of government service delivery, which stems from the ethical management of e- governance operations. Personal (psychological), interpersonal (one to another), relational (social glue), and societal trust are all important components of social capital (functioning). E-communication legislation, e-commerce legislation, e-procurement legislation, and database legislation are all key ethical problems related to e- governance.

2.2.7 Situation of Public Service Delivery through Civil Service in Nepal Nepal is in the process of transitioning from a unitary to a federal administration, with three levels of government: federal, provincial, and municipal. The new constitution was promulgated and governments of three tiers were formed after successful holding of the elections (Adhikari, 2017).

Common people do not have a good impression of the government and the government machinery, basically, the bureaucracy, public corporations, and service- providing agencies. Most development works are delayed, rarely completed on time, and the quality of public construction is rather poor. Public service delivery has not been standardized, it is rather unpredictable, and people must go through a cumbersome process. There are differential treatments among service recipients, even the required documents to be submitted may vary from person to person. The use of IT for supplying services has not been effective. Once IT was introduced for providing service, it was supposed to be faster and easier. However, in many cases, IT has become further cumbersome after being used in issuing driving licenses by the Transport.

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Management Office land registration from the Land Management Office.

Despite this, in most other cases, the use of IT has contributed a lot, basically to data analysis and record management (Thapa, 2017).

Sainbule (2019) claims that morale and motivation of the public employees and security personnel were found to be very low, having no enthusiasm at all. Common people rarely respect the dignity of public employees and behave negatively and, because of this, the request by public employees for required papers and documents is negatively perceived by citizens to mean as being asked to make a bribe. The process and required papers including the time or period of the service were not standardized.

It may vary from person to person and differ as per approach. Essentially, the time taken to provide the service varies based on the approach and extra incentives provided to the service provider. Public service employees are very sincere employees fully loyal to their duties, but they are generally seen in a negative light and undermined of their service and contributions, basically by the service providers.

Sapkota (2018) claims that most provincial and local governments are struggling to get established. They do not have proper office buildings, infrastructures, and most importantly, they lack a competent and motivated workforce to solve all those problems. The slogan of the government as being amongst the common people is yet to be materialized. The common people have become reactive to rather than supportive of the government activities. If some incidents take place such as a vehicle accident, they tend to make a scandal of it and do not wait for law enforcement. Concisely, it can be argued that the governance system is yet to be effective, credible, and respectful in the eyes of the common people.

E-Governance as a useful tool for governance in Nepal was introduced in 2000 with the introduction of the country's first IT Policy. Yet there has been little success in putting e-Governance into practice. In light of the ongoing digital divide and the inability to successfully adopt e-Governance, a new approach to e-Governance deployment is needed in the country. The telecom market in Nepal has grown enormously as a result of social, economic, and cultural developments. Even However, policymakers and professionals in the area have not yet focused on mobile-Governance, which might take advantage of the expansion of the telecom industry and enable the country to adopt an efficient form of e-Governance utilizing mobile technology. e-

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Governance implementation problems in Nepal and the potential use of a long-term mobile governance framework to bridge the digital gap are being studied in depth (Shakya, 2017).

Institutions, politics, service systems, and social connections, among other things, have been passed down through generations. Nepal remained receptive to the teachings of national politics in many instances following the elimination of anarchy.

At a key stage of the governance system's federalization, uncontrolled and poorly managed policy transmission might result in governance mistakes. To increase the collaborative, evidence-based, informed, and contextual nature of policy transfer to safeguard Nepal's freedom, sovereignty, territorial integrity, national unity, independence, and dignity, to sustain lasting peace, good governance, development, and prosperity through the federal, democratic, and republican systems of government (Thapa, 2018).

Government affiliations leverage ICT to nurture the skill and sensibility of the institutions to which they provide their support. Additionally, e-authorities can domesticate expertise in assisting with transportation, critical receptiveness, and authorization to institutions and statistics for consumers, healthy clients, and authorities' affiliations. In today's environment, the professional strategy of resident-driven affiliations, mandatory permission to data collection, and ease have become paramount via and huge programs. To fulfill the aims of e-affiliation, unique worldwide places have developed layers of land affiliation development. Since land is seen as a major resource in several foreign places, land stewardship is a sizable area of power. Apart from providing inexpensive and expert assistance with transportation, e-Bhoomi Association also permits the protection of residency following a setback. A solid and mind-boggling LIS reestablishes land statistics and assists in the patching up of land residency (Gurung, Dangol, & Dangol, 2015).

Civil service reform must be only one step towards a much larger overhaul of Nepal's government and bureaucracy. To set the stage for effective growth, attention must be paid to four important areas of governance and administration. Organizational design and management come first, followed by the political system's structure and legitimacy, then cultural and structural elements. Finally, the design of the political system comes last. In his book State Building, he states that the first component, public

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administration, and individual organizations contain the majority of the information that is passed from one country to the next. There are no generally valid guidelines for organizational design, however, even within this restricted arena. You may assist improve states in underdeveloped nations and train people in this sector directly because of it.

2.2.8 Types of Public Services Provided by Government Agencies

Services that promote social capitals, human capitals, financial capitals, physical capitals, and environmental as well as psychological services are included under public services in Nepal. Thapa (2017) mentions that under the organizational jurisdictions, there are public services related to policy formulation, and regulatory, service-related, and monitoring services. The categories of the public services are included under basic needs supply, human development, welfare services, infrastructure development services, business promotional services, services related to entertainment, information and record management services, counseling and training services, as well as social landscaping and administrative services.

2.3 Policy Review

The policies developed at different times by the government initiatives and with the support of international and national academia were reviewed and presented as below:

2.3.1 Development of IT Policy and Creation of Legal Instruments In Nepal, creating an IT Policy introduced in 2000 was one of the important initiatives of developing e-governance. The broad aims of the ‘IT Policy 2000' were to make digital transformation accessible to the masses and create more jobs through it, to create a knowledge-based economy, and to promote the knowledge-based industry.

(GoN, 2000). Later in 2010, the government of Nepal enacted a new IT policy with the following objectives: (GoN/MoST, 2010, p. 8):

Make information and communication technology (ICT) a top priority in government administration;

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To promote the growth of a knowledge-based society;

To make e-government more inclusive and successful in terms of information dissemination and service delivery;

To employ information and communication technology (ICT) as a profitable resource in the economic and commercial sectors;

To provide access to multinational IT initiatives and advances; and

Establishing effective government-wide data centers to establish IT as a development infrastructure.

The revised IT policy attempted to increase the usage of Information Communication Technology in both public and private sector governance. Several legal instruments were established to develop the IT sector and enhance e-governance in Nepal, in addition to the adoption of IT policies. The Electronic Transactions Act and Digital Signature Act of 2008, the Cyber Law of 2007, the E-Government Master Plan of 2006, and the Telecommunications Policy of 2004; National Strategy Paper on ICT (National Planning Commission), 2002; Electronic Transaction and Digital Signature Act (ETADSA), 2057 (2000); Copyright Act, 2059 (2000);

Telecommunication Act, 1997 and Telecommunication Regulations 1997; and National Communication Policy, 1992 were among them. These efforts undoubtedly generated a climate conducive to the development of Nepal's ICT sector. Still, policymakers' dedication, as well as policy implementation, were both deemed critical.

2.3.2 Institutional Mechanism of Implementing ICT

The Ministry of Science and Technology (MoST), the High-Level Commission for Information Technology (HLCIT), and the Nepal Telecom Authority are just a few of the significant institutions developed to support the ICT sector. Several private businesses, in complement to these governmental bodies, provide teleservices such as telephone and Internet services. The government has also promoted the BOT system and allowed foreign direct investment in this sector's advancement. The Asian Development Bank-financed the improvement of Tribhuvan International Airport, including three distant domestic airports, which was one of the most important undertakings contributing to Nepal's IT development.

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2.3.3 Strategic Framework for Implementation of E-Government

An e-government strategy, according to Heeks, is a plan for e-government technologies and their supporting infrastructure that maximizes management's capacity to meet organizational goals. E-government strategies are being developed by a growing number of government organizations. Strategic strategies and frameworks are required for the development and execution of e-government in the nation. Various procedures must be completed to design and deploy e-government. The vision and objectives for effective e-government implementation must be set in the first step. At this level, a very beneficial vision and set of objectives for developing and implementing e-government in the country were developed. Technical architecture and infrastructures were also built as part of this stage to aid in the development and implementation of e-government in the country. E-readiness is examined to meet the vision and objectives of e-government, and the results are compared to those of other countries to determine where the country is in terms of e-government implementation.

The use of ICT applications to open doors for economic and human progress is what development is all about. National governments and other stakeholders are working on e-government apps for development as part of WSIS. The report's metrics are geared toward evaluating e-usage governments of ICT and the provision of web- based services. The worldwide comparability of public administration statistics will be improved if the indicators' definitions and criteria are adhered to. Surveys used to collect government data should be designed or redesigned with important indicators in mind, according to the World Bank (2012).

The OECD suggested a strategic focus on benefit realization, required models of shared public IT projects, programs, and analyses, and eventually a single model of public governance and collaboration. To assist authorities, refocusing their emphasis on mitigating risks and reaping advantages, Denmark's strategic framework encourages the creation of ICT projects that draw on prior experiences and expand upon existing efforts. Successful ICT projects have frequently involved key players across organizational boundaries and benefitted from a defined strategic mandate and strategy, building on the technological advantages achieved by prior rounds of e-government programs in the 1990s and early 2000s. DSTG's participative and collaborative approach, as well as the constructive feedback provided by DCITP, have been

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extensively adopted as an intergovernmental IT project model, and it is frequently claimed that these approaches are the most crucial drivers (Nielsen, 2014).

2.3.4 Legal and Regulatory Framework

The legal and regulatory frameworks include legal and policy aspects to facilitate e-government. Some of them are Telecommunications Act, 1997;

Telecommunication Regulation, 1998; Information Technology Policy, 2010;

Telecommunication Policy, 2004; Electronic Transaction Act, 2006; E-Government Master Plan, 2006; IT Policy, 2010 (revision); FDI-related policies and budget speech of different fiscal years to name a few among others. The structural arrangement of e- government is a cross-cutting issue and demands coordination between different agencies. The Office of the Prime Minister and Councils of Ministers, the Ministry of Information and Communication, and the Ministry of Environment, Science, and Technology are among the agencies trying to improve e-governance in the country.

Others are the National Information Technology Centre (NITC); Nepal Telecommunication Authority; Nepal Doorsanchar Company Limited (NTCL), Government Integrated Data Center; IT Park; ICT unit in every Ministry, and all Departments and several private sectors' initiatives in ICT infrastructure and services.

Likewise, many programs and projects for G2C, G2G, G2B, and infrastructure development are ongoing to create service automation and enhancement of e- government. Some of them are the online tax payment system; online procurement (bid submission) system; online registration system; smart card distribution system; online call list tracking system (Supreme Court); online banking (private sector-one of the successful practices); online service charges payment system; online ticketing (different services); computerization of official document (microfilming); online file tracing/e-HRM projects; online budgetary control system; e-voting; and telecommunication networks strengthening projects (Optical fiber /CDMA/ADSL and others) all over the country. As a result of such initiatives, some significant achievement was observed in ICT development and e-government.

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2.3.5 ICT Master Plan (2013-2017)

The Ministry of Education's ICT Master Plan contains four important facets of ICT in education: Internet connectivity, human capital, content management, and system advancement. Infrastructure, connection, teaching-learning materials, and human resources all fall under the umbrella of ICT in education. The Master Plan comprises five key education sub-sectors, namely School Education, Higher Education, Teacher Education and Training, and Continuing Education and Life-long Learning. In addition, Governance and Management in Education are also covered. The plan also states the general institutional framework for putting the plan into action and identifies the method for monitoring and evaluating the results of such monitoring and assessment. This plan identifies goals, tactics, activities and programs, key outcomes and targets, and projected costs for each of these parts. In addition, it outlines the deployment strategy, implementation, and review mechanisms, processes, and operations.

2.4 Theoretical Review

A theory is a set of hypotheses provided to describe the relationships among two or more observed realities in formal language. For starters, theories provide a consistent framework for comprehending our experiences. Second, theories allow us to communicate more effectively, allowing us to enter into more complex interactions with others. Third, theories push us to continue learning about the world around us. The management of human resources is based on a range of theories. The management theories that were reviewed for this study are listed below.

2.4.1 System Theory in E-governance

The systems approach to management, according to Stoner, Freeman, and Gilbert (1996), sees the organization as a cohesive, purposeful system made up of interconnected pieces. Managers can use this technique to see their organization as a whole and as a part of a much larger, external world. According to system theory, any part of an organization's operation influences the performance of every other component to various degrees. The flexible and interconnected aspects of corporations

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and the administration task is highlighted by system theory. It offers a framework under which we can plan activities and expect both near and long-term implications, as well as understanding unexpected effects as they arise. From the standpoint of system theory, general managers can better reconcile the needs of diverse parts of the company with the objectives and goals of the entire company.

In his book Making Globalization Work (2006), Nobel Laureate Joseph E.

Stiglitz mentions education 199 times on 374 pages. “What distinguishes developed from less developed nations is not simply a disparity in money, but a knowledge gap,”

he adds, “which is why government investments in education and technology are so important.” Because knowledge and information can readily and quickly travel across the world, the OECD said in 2005 that businesses and individuals that possess and intensively employ knowledge and information expedite the globalization process. The Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology (POST) in the United Kingdom acknowledged in 2006 that information and communication technology (ICT) may assist poor nations in addressing a wide variety of health, social, and economic issues.

The