Step 3: The Advisory Bodies
6.4 Environmental changes Relative to economic and sociocultural impacts
of WHS designation on local communities, its environmental impacts on the communities, particularly direct impacts, appear to be rather limited. That is because environmental changes in local communities are likely to be initiated or enhanced by tourism activities that are ad- vanced by WH status. As a whole, tourism tends to cause negative changes in the natural envi- ronment, while it can instigate positive changes in the built environment such as infrastructures.
WHC (2017k) lists 14 primary factors that af- fect the OUV of WHSs:
1. Buildings and development;
2. Transportation infrastructure;
3. Utilities or service infrastructure;
4. Pollution;
5. Biological resource use/modification;
6. Physical resource extraction;
7. Local conditions affecting physical fabric;
8. Social/cultural uses of heritage;
9. Other human activities;
10. Climate change and severe weather events;
11. Sudden ecological or geological events;
12. Invasive/alien species or hyper-abundant species;
13. Management and institutional factors; and 14. Other factor(s).
Tourism is included in two primary factors,
‘Buildings and development’ and ‘Social/cultural
uses of heritage’, as a secondary factor. Of these primary factors, ‘Climate change and severe weather events’ is seen as the most intimidating threat to WHS conservation (The Guardian, 2014;
IUCN, 2014), and human actions can be seen as one of the main causes of climate change. Obvi- ously, natural disasters such as tsunamis and earthquakes may damage WHSs and their OUV, but it is almost impossible for humankind to pre- vent them. However, human actions are deeply associated with the majority of the aforemen- tioned primary factors and can negatively influ- ence the OUV of WHSs in a direct or indirect way. Simultaneously, however, it is also true that there are numerous measures human beings can take for the conservation of the natural en- vironment surrounding WHSs.
The changes in the natural environment that have been directly caused by WH status seem to be very limited, but these changes ap- pear to be positive ones from local communities’
viewpoints. Concerning the changes in built environment (infrastructures), generally, it is challenging to identify whether they are imme- diately triggered by WH status. In many cases, however, WH status does not appear to directly cause such changes. Stated differently, WH sta- tus can encourage tourism development at WHSs or destinations holding a WHS, and then advanced tourism might provoke positive rather than negative changes in local infrastructures.
Usually, local people do not seem to feel that the changes in infrastructure are caused directly by WH status. In addition, even indirect impacts of WH status or direct impacts of tourism advanced by the status on the changes in local infrastruc- ture are not always confirmed by local people.
7 Contemporary Developments in and around World Heritage Sites There are three fundamental contemporary de- velopments in the concept of WHSs, namely the LWHD, the idea of ‘Cultural Landscapes’ and the notion of ‘Historic Urban Landscapes’ (hereafter HULs). The LWHD aims to warn about the worrying conditions of WHSs and encourage a series of corrective actions, while the concepts of Cultural Landscapes and HULs intend to make the concept of WHSs and the shape of the WHL as complete as possible. Thanks to these notions,
the evidence of outstanding communications between humans and the natural environment can be valued properly, and the use of historic urban environments in people’s lifestyles can be valued.
Contemporary developments around the concept of WHSs are divided into culture- focused and nature-focused concepts. Along with WHSs, Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) and Memory of the World (MoW) are key schemes adopted by UNESCO for conservation of cultural herit- age at a global level and complement each other to guarantee conservation of a variety of cultur- al heritage in different countries. The idea of ICH is imperative for the conservation of intan- gible heritage as well as intangible components of tangible heritage. According to UNESCO (2016), the concept of ICH consists of:
a) Oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the ICH;
b) Performing arts;
c) Social practices, rituals and festive events;
d) Knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; and
e) Traditional craftsmanship.
The emphasis of the concept of MoW is the upkeep of ‘documentary heritage’. Relative to WHSs and ICH, MoW is immature as a main ini- tiative for cultural heritage conversation. Overall, IHC and MoW do not seem to have an obvious disparity between the west, the east and other regions of the world. However, there are still areas for enhancement in both conceptual and practical aspects of the three initiatives, especial- ly MoW, for conservation of cultural heritage in the future.
Together with WHSs, UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGs) and Biosphere Reserves (BRs) are core systems implemented by UNESCO for conservation of natural heritage at an interna- tional level, and work mutually to ensure con- servation of various natural heritage in diverse regions of the world. The concept of UGGs pays attention to ‘geological’ heritage that is not em- bedded enough in other UNESCO plans for natu- ral heritage conservation. Furthermore, creation of a Global Geoparks Network is notable as it could encourage interactions among partici- pants from various countries and their mutual cooperation at a global level. On the other hand,
the focus of BRs is conservation of the biosphere.
Collaboration among nations and a holistic strategy at an international level are necessary for BR conservation because of the massive extent and composite nature of BRs. To this end, BRs in the world also establish the World Net- work of Biosphere Reserves that stimulates sup- port across national borders and international partnership through exchanging knowledge and experience, building capacity and promoting best practices (UNESCO, 2017). Overall, UGGs and BRs do not seem to show a clear imbalance in various facets between the west, the east and other regions of the world; though these schemes and WHSs would need to be reconsidered from time to time and improved further to tackle the dangers that can arise.
8 Suggested Academic Models The author proposes models that explain the main interrelationships:
•
between WH status, tourism and local resi- dents’ views towards principal changes in local people’s minds (Fig. 5.2 in Chapter 5);•
between WH status, tourism and local in- habitants’ views towards economic changes in local communities (Fig. 6.2 in Chapter 6);•
between WH status, tourism and local people’s views towards sociocultural changes in local communities (Fig. 7.2 in Chapter 7); and•
between WH status, tourism and local residents’ views towards environmental changes in local communities (Fig. 8.1 in Chapter 8).In Figures 6.2, 7.2 and 8.1, the colour shades of the arrows between ‘WH Status’ and
‘Changes in Local Community’ signify the strength of a cause-and-effect relationship be- tween these two: the arrow in Figure 7.2 shows the strongest relationship and the one in Figure 8.1 displays the weakest.
In light of these four frameworks and key outcomes in previous chapters, the author sug- gests a model that summarizes the key interre- lationships between WHSs, WH status, tourism, local communities and conservation activities as the foremost deliverables of this book (see Fig. 10.1).
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academic models 158–159 Acadia (Canada) 74 access to funding 85–86 accommodation
development 124 fees 90
adventure tourism 53 advisory bodies 3–4 Africa
economic impact of tourism 92 natural environment 122 poaching 120
sub-Saharan 115 African conservation science 23 age 70
anti-tourism movements 91
Arabian Oryx Sanctuary (Oman) 101, 109, 134 artificial environment, categories 38
Asia 115
poaching 120
attachment to place of residence 73 attitudinal changes 72
attractions 52 Australia
National Parks 58 Uluru-Kata Tjuta 60
Austria, Hallstatt-Dachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape 12
authenticity 43, 150–151 attributes of 150 British people 12 conservation 151
fake version 12–13 Hallstat in China 12 heritage 12–13 Huis Ten Bosch 12 Japan 151
Japanese attitude towards 12
balancing 40, 44 Balinese culture 74 Barcelona 91
basic infrastructure, local communities 117–118 biosphere reserves 141–142
birth place 71
Boeing 787 Dreamliner 116 bottom-up approach 24 boundaries 4
brand 55, 56 branded goods 90 brochures 50 brown bears 116 Buddhism 11, 150
monuments in the Horyu-ji Area 59, 88 shogyo-mujo 13
temples 55–56
and pilgrimage routes 28, 86, 102 buffer zones 4
building materials, difference between East and West 151
buildings
exteriors, appearance of 14 groups of 6, 25, 137
161 Note: Page numbers in bold type refer to figures
Page numbers in italic type refer to tables
built environment
cities and planning 152 conservation of 37
infrastructure 117–119, 123–124 and natural environment 115 business 93
services 87 business tourism 89
Canada, Acadia 74 Cancun (Mexico) 116, 117 Cape Coast (Ghana) 73 Chile, Rapa Nui National Park 7 China
dams 121
Three Gorges 121 Great Wall 13 Hallstatt in 12 Huangshan 71 Lijiang Old Town 44
Mutianyu 73, 87, 89, 91, 123, 124 Taiqian 90
Christianity 13 cities
Barcelona 91 Bath 10 Cancun 116, 117 Cologne Cathedral 54 Edinburgh 125 Hiroshima 53, 60
Liverpool 101, 102, 132, 133 Osaka 90
and planning 13–14, 151–152 Tokyo 90
Venice 91 Verona 90 York 118
civil conflicts, and natural environment 122 climate change 119, 121–122
Sundarbans 121 collectivism 14, 150 Cologne Cathedral 54
communities and societies 11, 150 see also local communities community
concept 66 development 66–68
Confucian countries, employment opportunities 88 Confucianism 11, 150
conservation activities
local communities 159 management 152, 153 authenticity 151
of built environment 37 culture 13
European movement 14 heritage 24, 45 interest in 72 Japan 151
local awareness of 115 nature 45
plans 42
United Kingdom 13 visitation 26
conservation science, African 23 conservationists 23
construction 13
contemporary development 131–132 main concepts 158–159 cost of living 93
Costiera Amalfitana (Italy) 55 cultural atmosphere 37 cultural differences 69 cultural heritage, categories 6 cultural landscapes 4, 134, 135, 136 culture
conservation 13 local 37, 42 and nature 13
and religion 11–12, 150 scrap and build 27
culture-focused concepts 137–138
Daimon-zaka (WHS Kii) 28 dams 120–121
China 121
Three Gorges Dam 121
danger list see List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD)
dark tourism 53 de-differentiation 23 de-marketing 59, 61 deforestation 116 degradation 38
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), natural environment 122
designation 4, 7–9, 8 destination
cluster 51–52 cultural atmosphere 37 development 116 image 53, 54 management 61 marketing 50–52, 61 positioning 55 recognition, image 37 tourist 43, 115
destination marketing organisation (DMO) 50, 57 development
accommodation 124 community 66–68
contemporary 131–132, 158–159 destination 116
economic 39 sustainable 35, 44 tourism 39–40, 40–41, 42 transport 118
triple bottom line (TBL) 36–37 differentiation, uniqueness 55 dissolved boundaries 23
diversification, local industries and business 35 documents, responsibilities and duties 26 drama tourism 53
Dresden Elbe Valley (Germany) 7, 25, 101, 104, 123, 133, 134, 136
duties, and responsibilities 25–26
e-WOM 51
Eastern European countries 54 eastern perspectives 11–15
on Ise Jingu (Japan) 27 and western perspectives 27–28 ecocentric approach, to natural heritage 21 economic burden 93
economic changes 155–156 local people’s views 86–88 economic dependency 70 economic development 39 economic growth theory 39 economic impacts 82–83, 82 Edinburgh (Scotland) 125 education levels 70 educational trips 58, 61 elderly people 93
Elkhart County Convention and Visitors’ Bureau 57 Elmina (Ghana) 73 employment
local people’s views 89 opportunities 88, 92, 93 endangered species 116 environmental aspect 45 environmental changes
OUV primary factors 157 sociocultural changes 71 environmental impacts
destination development 116 tourism 114–115
Europe, conservation movement 14 European countries 14
Everglades (Florida) 122, 125, 132–134 experience 50
extrinsic factors 69
fake version 12–13 fees, accommodation 90
festivals 53 financial support 86
and funding 42 flora and fauna 38 food tourism 53 fresh water 117 funding 45, 92
access to 85–86 and financial support 42
Galapagos, discovery of 120 gender 70
geographical and physiographical formations 6 Germany, Dresden Elbe Valley 7, 25, 101, 104, 123,
133, 134, 136
Ghana, Cape Coast and Elmina 73 global brand 56
global heritage 4 global strategy 5
Global Strategy for a Representative, Balanced and Credible World Heritage List 4 globalisation 23
States Parties 3
Gokayama (Japan) 8, 43, 57, 59, 72, 86, 88, 100, 108–109, 122
golf tourism 117 goods 90
government, local 68 Great Wall of China 13 greenhouse gases 116 groups of buildings 6, 25, 137
Guimarães (Portugal) 87, 89, 91, 103, 105, 106, 108, 124
Ha Long Bay (Vietnam) 74, 87, 91, 125 habitat degradation 134
Hallstatt in China 12
Hallstatt-Dachstein Salzkammergut Cultural Landscape (Austria) 12
heritage 5, 14, 23, 29 authenticity 12–13 concepts of 9–11 conservation 24
plan 45 discourse 25 global 4 industrial 54 industry
heritage management 20 Operational Guidelines 20 intangible 29
management 20 heritage industry 20 Yellowstone National Park 20 skills, intangible elements 27
heritage tourism 53 rise of 54
Hiroshima City (Japan) 60, 60 Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Japan) 53 historic centres, concept of 14
Historic Urban Landscapes (HULs) 136–137 history of tourism 69
holistic approach 61 holistic management 57
Horyu-ji Area Buddhist Monuments (Japan) 59, 88 house construction, new, Japan 13
Huangshan (China) 71 human conditions 134
identity 9 local 74 image 60
content 50 destination 53, 54
recognition 37 induced 55 organic 55 site 42, 43 income 89
individualism 11, 14 induced images 55 industrial heritage 54 industries
heritage 20 traditional 88 infrastructure
built environment 117–119, 123–124 for local communities
basic 117–118 and visitors 118–119 transport 38, 118, 123 inscription 149
intangible heritage 27, 29 integrity 10
interactions, people and nature 151 interest in conservation 72
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) 3, 8, 21, 56, 148, International Council on Monuments and Sites
(ICOMOS) 3, 8, 9, 21, 40, 42, 56, 74, 148 international tourism organisation 57
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 4, 7, 8, 20, 43, 119, 122 internet 50–51
intrinsic factors 69–71 invasion of privacy, nuisance 42 invasive species 119–120 investment 87
Ise Jingu (Japan) 27
Islamic countries, employment opportunities 88
Italy
Costiera Amalfitana 55 Venice 91
Verona 90
Japan 11, 12, 58, 59, 73, 86, 89, 90–91, 122, 124 authenticity 151
Buddhist Monuments Horyu-ji Area 59, 88
temples and pilgrimage routes 55, 86 conservation 151
Gokayama 8, 43, 57, 59, 72, 86, 88, 100, 108–109, 122
Hiroshima City 60, 60 Hiroshima Peace Memorial 53 Ise Jingu 27
Kyoto 90 muraokoshi 15 natural WHSs 125 new house construction 13 Osaka 90
shikinen sengu 27 Shirakawa-go 8
Ogimachi 59, 73, 89, 90–91, 108, 109, 122, 124
Tokyo 90
Japanese people, nature 151 jobs, tourism-related 36
Kenya, Lamu Old Town 89 key stakeholders, tourism 35
Kii Mountain Range 28–29, 57, 75, 86, 101, 102–103, 122
Daimon-zaka 28
Kotor (Montenegro), Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of 132
Kyoto (Japan) 90
Lamu Old Town (Kenya) 89 landscapes 134
cultural 4, 134, 135, 136 leisure activities, traditional 52–53 length of residence 70
less-developed countries (LDCs) 14, 36, 56, 118 Lijiang Town (China) 44
List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD) 2, 3, 22, 101, 102, 106, 109, 122, 136, 148 as contemporary development 131, 132–134,
133, 142 Everglades 125, 122 literature tourism 53
Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City (UK) 101, 102, 132, 133
living costs, and property values 37
living standards, and quality of living 37 local communities 23, 59, 93, 154–155
basic infrastructure 117–118 change in views 155 conservation activities 159 diversity 69
local people 65 split 45 tourism 66 United Kingdom 75
and visitors, infrastructure 118–119 local culture 42
authenticity of 37 enhancing 37 local goods 90 local government 68 local identity 74
local industries and business, diversification 35 local people
local communities 65
views of 68–69, 77, 93, 110, 126 employment 89
Ha Long Bay 87 Mutianyu village 87
natural environment 122–123 tourism 87–88
visitors 37 demand 27 Londoners 74
Macquarie Island 120 management 57, 148
conservation activities 152 destination 61
heritage 20 holistic 57
plan, responsibilities and duties 26 site 149
stewardship 10 tourism 41, 42 managers 30 marketing
destination 50–52, 57, 61 organisations, stakeholders 57 tourism 49
mass media 55
Mauritius, Port Louis 71, 90 memory of the world 138–140 Mexico, Cancun 116, 117 michi-bushin programme 29 modern tourism 50 monitoring
reactive 22 and reporting 29
Montenegro, Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor 132
monuments 6, 59, 88 Mount Wutai 59 movie tourism 53
multinational corporations (MNCs) 36, 85 muraokoshi 15
Mutianyu (China) 73, 87, 89, 91, 123 resident surveys 124
national parks 13, 58, 60
Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor (Montenegro) 132
natural environment 38 Africa 122
and built environment 115 changes in 122
civil conflicts 122
Democratic Republic of the Congo 122 impact of tourism 115, 115–116 local people’s views 122–123 natural features 6
natural heritage 21 categories of 6 ecocentric approach 21 sustainable 21
World Heritage Centre 21 natural sites 6
nature
and culture 13 Japanese people 151 nature conservation 45 nature reserves, private 115 nature-focused concepts 140–141 Nepal 116
new technologies 26 nuisance 42
Ogimachi (Japan) 59, 73, 89, 91, 122, 124 gassho-style houses 108, 109 local people’s views 90–91
Oman, Arabian Oryx Sanctuary 101, 109, 134 Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the WH
Convention 4, 6, 10, 20, 29 organic images 55
Osaka (Japan) 90
Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) 10, 22, 29, 119, 120, 149, 157
overcrowding 37, 42
pace and scale, tourism development 42 park-and-ride systems 118
parking spaces 118
Partnerships for Conservation Initiative (PACT) 86 people and nature, interactions 151
Periodic Reporting 22
photography 50
pilgrimage routes see Kii Mountain Range place of residence (to live) 70
attachment to 73 planning
and cities 13–14, 151–152 sustainable 26
plans
conservation 42
heritage conservation plan 45 poaching 119, 120, 134
pollution 38, 117 population 37
Port Louis (Mauritius) 71, 90
Portugal, Guimarães 87, 89, 91, 103, 105, 106, 108, 124
postmodernism 22
pride in place of residence 73–74 privacy
invasion of 42 overcrowding 37 private nature reserves 115 properties 10
values 37
psychological impacts, of World Heritage status 72–76
quality of living 37
Rapa Nui National Park (Chile) 7 reactive monitoring 22 religion, and culture 11–12, 150 reporting and monitoring 29 residence
length of 70
pride in place of 73–74 resident surveys 123 responsibility 39
balancing 44 and duties 25–26 responsible tourism 39 rural areas 1
Sacred Sites and Pilgrimage Routes in the Kii Mountain Range 28–29, 28, 57, 75, 86, 101, 102–103, 122
Saltaire (UK) 8, 73, 87, 122 local people’s views 90–91 tourist signs 75
Scotland, Edinburgh 125 scrap and build culture 27 seaside 53
seasonality 69, 88
selection, criteria for 5 sense of community 37 services 50, 60
business 87 sewage 117 shikinen sengu 27 Shintoism 11
Shirakawa-go (Japan) 8
Ogimachi 59, 73, 89, 90–91, 122, 124 shogyo-mujo 13
sites
cultural heritage 6
in danger list see List of World Heritage in Danger (LWHD)
image 42, 43 management 149 skiing 53
social dimension 21 social pathology 36 social polarisation 37
societies and communities 11, 150 sociocultural aspect 45
sociocultural changes 71, 110, 156–157 South Korea 71
Spain, Barcelona 91 spas 53
split local communities 45 staged authenticity 43 stakeholders 61
key 35
marketing organisations 57 tourism 35, 115
State of Conservation Information System (SOC) 22 States Parties 3, 6, 30, 122, 123, 132, 135
competition 40 globalisation 3 natural heritage 6
World Heritage Committee 2 Stone Town of Zanzibar 89 strategy, global 4, 5 sub-Saharan Africa 115 Sundarbans, climate change 121
sustainability, triple bottom line (TBL) 35, 36–37, 45 sustainable development 35, 44
sustainable planning 26 sustainable tourism 39, 150
Taiqian (China) 90 taxation 89, 90 technical knowledge 27 temples 55–56
and pilgrimage routes 28, 86, 102 Thailand 86
Three Gorges Dam (China) 121 Tokyo (Japan) 90