Where voluntary procedures to promote sustain- ability have failed then increased regulation may be the only option available to gain the re- quired outcomes. A range of potential regulatory measures exist, with some of the more popular approaches including increased charging for
resource use or undesirable impacts, such as pol- lution; new taxation regimes; licences and per- mits. However, while the need for such measures to change behaviour may be recognised (e.g.
Gössling and Hall 2006), governments are often fearful of industry and consumer backlash with respect to increased regulation, particularly if it also increases the cost of travel or products.
It is the implications of these lessons for the suc- cessful application of sustainable tourism strate- gies that the following chapters will address.
Summary
As with all forms of resource development, tourism requires appropriate management regimes. The free market is not an adequate mech- anism by itself to protect the interests of all parties and stakeholders in the tourism development process. Management regimes evolve as a solution to the challenge of collective action (Ostrom 1990). In the case of tourism planning we are looking at a way in which such collective action can be understood and furthered within the con- text of tourism development. As this chapter has highlighted, a number of approaches to tourism planning have developed, ranging from unre- strained boosterism through to economic empha- sis and, more recently, there have been approaches that emphasise the environmental and community dimensions of tourism. Since the mid-1980s several strands of these approaches have become integrat- ed to various degrees in an attempt to formulate more sustainable approaches towards tourism de- velopment. An examination of the most cited pub- lications in the tourism planning and policy literature (Table 3.4) indicates the significance of community-based and sustainable approaches in academic literature along with significant atten- tion being given to issues of public participation, collaboration, land-use planning and sustainability.
Yet, given the effects of tourism development, there also appears to be a significant disjoint be- tween the focus of academic attention on tourism planning and the actual sustainability of tourism.
The increasing recognition by government and industry of the nexus between tourism and
Table 3.4 Key readings/influences in tourism planning and policy as assessed by number of citations Average Journal name Number citations/year
Author Date Title or book edition of citations since published
Inskeep 1991 Tourism Planning 1st edn 253 15.8
Gunn 1988 Tourism Planning 3rd edn 230 12.1
Hall 1994 Tourism and 1st edn 155 11.9
Politics: Policy, Power and Place
Gunn with 2002 Tourism Planning: 4th edn 152 30.4
Var Basics, Concepts, Cases
Jamal and 1995 Collaboration theory Annals of 113 9.4
Getz and community Tourism Research
tourism planning
Hall and 1995 Tourism and 1st edn 100 8.3
Jenkins Public Policy
Hall 2000 Tourism Planning: 1st edn 103 8.3
Policies, Processes and Relationships
Richter 1989 The Politics of 1st edn 62 3.4
Tourism in Asia
Reed 1997 Power relations and Annals of 59 5.9
community-based Tourism Research tourism planning
Simmons 1994 Community participation Tourism 57 4.3
in tourism planning Management
Getz 1986 Models in tourism Tourism 56 2.7
planning: towards Management integration of theory
and practice
Elliott 1997 Tourism: Politics and 1st edn 51 5.1
Public Sector Management
Edgell 1990 International Tourism 1st edn 51 3
Policy
Sautter and 1999 Managing stakeholders: Annals of 47 5.9
Leisen a tourism planning Tourism Research
model
Getz 1992 Tourism planning and Annals of 47 3.1
destination life cycle Tourism Research
Bramwell 2000 Tourism Collaboration 1st edn 43 6.1
and Lane and Partnership: Politics, Practice and Sustainability
Keogh 1990 Public participation in Annals of 41 2.4
community tourism Tourism Research planning
▼
Table 3.4 (continued)
Average Journal name Number citations/year
Author Date Title or book edition of citations since published
Inskeep 1994 National and Regional 1st edn 40 3.1
Tourism Planning
Getz and 1994 The environment- Journal of 37 2.8
Jamal community symbiosis: Sustainable
a case for collaborative Tourism tourism planning
Haywood 1988 Responsible and Tourism 36 1.9
responsive tourism Management planning in the
community
Ryan 2002 Equity, management, Tourism 33 6.6
power sharing and Management sustainability: issues of
the ‘new tourism’
Dredge 1999 Destination place Annals of 31 3.9
planning and design Tourism Research
Pigram 1990 Sustainable tourism- Journal of 28 1.6
policy considerations Tourism Studies
Getz 1987 Tourism planning Conference 26 2.0
and research paper
Hall 1999 Rethinking collaboration Journal of 25 3.1
and partnership: a Sustainable public policy perspective Tourism
Yuksel et al. 1999 Stakeholder interviews Tourism 23 2.9
and tourism planning Management at Pamukkale, Turkey
Murphy 1988 Community driven Tourism 22 1.2
tourism planning Management
Selin 1999 Developing a typology Journal of 21 2.6
of sustainable tourism Sustainable
partnerships Tourism
Note: Number of citations derived from Google Scholar survey undertaken 25 April 2007. Where there were two citation records for the same publication they were combined. Only tourism journals or book publications with over 20 citations were included.
sustainable development does augur well for a more socially responsive and environmentally sensitive tourism industry. However, the design, planning and management of tourism environ- ments requires more than the simplistic adop- tion of codes and guidelines or industry self-regulation, valid though these strategies may be. Instead, a sustainable tourism industry
requires a commitment by all parties involved in the planning process to sustainable development principles. Only through such widespread com- mitment can the long-term integration of social, environmental and economic goals be attained, issues that we will return to as we progress through the various dimensions and scales of tourism planning and policy.
Questions
1. How does market failure provide a justifica- tion for government intervention in tourism?
2. Why are community-based approaches to tourism planning difficult to implement?
3. To what extent are Dutton and Hall’s (1989) five mechanisms to achieve sustainable tourism development still relevant in the twenty-first century?
Important websites and recommended reading
Websites
World Travel & Tourism Council:
http://www.wttc.travel/
World’s leading tourism industry interest group.
UN World Tourism Organization:
http://www.world-tourism.org/
The World Tourism Organization
(UNWTO/ OMT), is a specialised agency of the United Nations, and is the leading international organisation in the field of tourism.
Recommended reading
1. Hall, D. and Brown, F. (2006) Tourism and Welfare: Ethics, Responsibility and
Sustained Well-Being,CABI, Wallingford.
Provides an excellent account of the issues of tourism development and how this relates to sustainability, ethical and quality of life concerns.
2. Hall, C.M. (2005) Tourism: Rethinking the Social Science of Mobility,Prentice Hall, Harlow.
In one sense a sister companion to the present book, examines tourism mobility and associated development issues, as well as the academic dimensions of tourism.
3. Gunn, C.A. with Var, T. (2002)Tourism Planning: Basics, Concepts, Cases,4th edn, Routledge, New York.
The most recent edition of a well-cited work that primarily takes a land-use and physical planning approach to tourism planning. An examination of the different editions of the book produces a good insight into the trends and changes in approaches to tourism planning, particularly within the spatial/physical tradition.
4. Inskeep, E. (1991)Tourism Planning: An Integrated and Sustainable Development Approach,Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.
Prescriptive land-use and site-based approach to tourism planning that has been well cited.
5. Michael, E.J. (2007) Micro-clusters and Networks: The Growth of Tourism,Oxford:
Elsevier.
One of the best accounts of the role of state with respect to the development of tourism clusters and networks.
6. Hall, C.M. (2002) ‘Travel safety, terrorism and the media: the significance of the issue attention cycle’, Current Issues in Tourism, 5(5): 458–66.
Applies the issue attention cycle to travel security issues post-9/11.
7. Murphy, P.E. and Murphy, A.E. (2004) Strategic Management for Tourism Communities,Channelview, Clevedon.
Updates some of Murphy’s earlier work on community tourism within a more contemporary strategic planning perspective.
8. Sharpley, R. and Telfer, D.J. (eds) (2002) Tourism and Development, Concepts and Issues,Channelview, Clevedon.
9. Campbell, S. and Fainstein, S. (eds) (2003) Readings in Planning Theory,Blackwell, Oxford.
Provides a useful comparison of theory and approach in general public planning with tourism planning.
10. Singh, S., Timothy, D. and Dowling, R.K.
(eds) (2003) Tourism in Destination Communities,CABI, Wallingford.
Provides a good overview of community- based tourism.
Chapter objectives
After reading this chapter you will:
• Understand the differences between prescrip- tive and descriptive approaches to tourism