the issues that have risen to the top of the research agenda over the past 30 years are relevant – indeed, essential . . . having onlysome of these conditions in good order is not enough.’ This is not to deny the signif- icance of the concept. The problem is the empirical basis for such comparative assessments as well as the epistemological and empirical basis. A key issue being:
is it correct to assume that nations – or other destina- tions for that matter – are appropriately conceived as
independent, collective entities that are competing in directly commensurable terms in a manner directly equivalent to that of firms? (Bristow 2005), rather than being conceptualised as territorially defined social, political, economic and environmental aggrega- tions, with different structures and sets of variables.
Source: World Economic Forum, Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2007 (http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/
TravelandTourismReport/index.htm).
short-term sectoral tourism interests, then in- creasing attention also needs to be given to the manner in which the institutional arrangements of government involvement in tourism are organ- ised (Healey 1999) and the instruments by which government intervenes to achieve tourism plan- ning and policy goals.
The organisation of government
Administrative traditions and historical legacies
Private sector interests and stakeholders
Changes in government
Definition of tourism planning and policy
problem Administrative and
external crises Change in public
tourism institutions over time
Public tourism institution Changing political and administrative philosophies about the role of government
POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE ENVIRONMENT
Figure 7.1 Factors leading to the design of government tourism institutions, their authority and tasks
similar to other national jurisdictions in that there is a small core group of primary agencies directly responsible for tourism and a large num- ber of secondary agencies that although having direct involvement in tourism have another ad- ministrative and/or policy area as their main focus. Not listed, but still significant, are those departments and agencies that indirectly affect tourism through their policies and the legislation for which they are responsible. For example, Departments of Finance and Treasury affect the overall economic environment within which tourism occurs through their setting of exchange and interest rates and by their policies on such matters as foreign investment.
The New Zealand example also illustrates the great problem surrounding coordination of tourism policy and planning for tourism in that there is a plethora of government stakeholders in
policy development in terms of different depart- ments and agencies, responsible ministers, and legislative bases for action. In order for more than the simplest policy settings to be achievable in this policy environment it becomes apparent that agencies will need to develop a series of positive interorganisational relationships in which com- mon goals can be agreed upon and in which in- formation flow is maximised for coordination to occur. Such a situation is extremely difficult. In- deed, it may partially explain why effective tourism policy development has been so difficult in many national jurisdictions (Hall and Jenkins 1995). Instead, in many western nations the policy function of tourism at the national govern- ment level has been reduced at the expense of a narrower promotion function. For example, in countries as geographically dispersed as Australia, Austria, Canada, New Zealand and the
Table 7.3Institutional arrangements for government involvement for tourism in New Zealand AgencyPrincipal roles*Enabling legislationResponsible ministerPrincipal tourism-related functions Primary agencies Ministry of TourismPolicyNone, but administersTourismProvides policy advice to the Minister of (A Ministry within theOperationsseveral Acts: NewTourism and works with other government Ministry of EconomicZealand Maori Arts anddepartments on key tourism policy issues. Development)Crafts Institute Act 1963;Work also includes advising on and evaluating New Zealand Tourismgovernment investment in tourism, carrying Board Act 1991; Touristout tourism research and assisting with major and Health Resortsevents. Manages 150 ha. Crown-owned land Control Act 1908.on which thermal springs are located and for which the Minister of Tourism is responsible. Tourism New ZealandMarketingNew Zealand TourismTourismEnsures that New Zealand is marketed as a (New Zealand TourismPolicyBoard Act 1991visitor destination to maximise long-term Board (NZTB))benefitstoNewZealand;developsimplements (Crown agency)and promotes strategies for tourism; and adapts government and industry on the development, promotion, implementation of those strategies. Department ofPolicyConservationConservationManagement of land in the conservation Conservation (DOC)OperationsAct 1987estate to achieve conservation objectives; Regulationgives effect to the principles of Treaty of Waitangi; advocates conservation; education; provision of visitor services and visitor centres; maintains historic and cultural heritage; and liaises with stakeholders. Secondary agencies Conservation Ministry for thePolicyEnvironment Act 1986EnvironmentAdvises government on all aspects of EnvironmentRegulationenvironmental administration; assists in the promotion of sustainable management; administers the Resource Management Act. New ZealandPolicyConservation Act 1987ConservationAdvises government on DOC policy and Conservation Authorityactivities; applies conservation management strategies and plans and National Park Management Plans. Conservation BoardsPolicyConservation Act 1987ConservationAdvises New Zealand Conservation Authority (NZCA) and regional conservators on policy and concessions.
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Table 7.3(continued) AgencyPrincipal roles*Enabling legislationResponsible ministerPrincipal tourism-related functions New Zealand HistoricRegulationHistoric PlacesConservationProtects and manages historic and cultural Places TrustOperations Act 1993heritage through advocacy, policy advice and Policydirect management. Fish and GameRegulationConservation Act 1987ConservationAn angler and gamebird hunter organisation New ZealandOperations that has a statutory mandate to manage Policyfreshwater sportsfish fisheries and gamebird hunting. Coordinates the management, enhancement and maintenance of sportsfish and game, through policy, advocacy and management. Antarctica New ZealandPolicyNew Zealand AntarcticForeign AffairsSpecialist agency responsible for developing, (Crown entity)OperationsInstitute Act 1996and Trademanaging and administering New Zealand’s Regulationactivities in Antarctica and the Southern InformationOcean, including the Ross Sea. Undertakes Infrastructurescientific and conservation activities as well as monitoring tourism activities. Employment, business, trade and economic development Ministry of MaoriPolicyMinistry of MaoriMaori AffairsMainly provides analysis and policy advice to Development – TeInformationDevelopment Act 1991increase Maori achievement within the tourism Puni Kokirisector, and monitors other agencies’ delivery of outcomes for Maori. Department of InternalOperations Internal AffairsAdvises and informs community groups and Affairs – LocalPolicy Local Governmentorganisations; provides funding through Lottery Government andInformation Community andGrants Board, also includes Local Government Community Branch, Voluntary SectorPolicy Unit. Although not tourism specific the Local GovernmentDepartment is also where the Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management sits in terms of government organisation. The Department is also responsible for the issuing of passports to New Zealand citizens. DepartmentofLabour– OperationsLabourEmployment relations, minimum wage, Employment RelationsPolicyimmigration/working holiday schemes. Information Regulation Ministry of AgriculturePolicyAgriculturePromotes rural diversification, including farm and ForestryInformationtourism.
Ministry of ForeignPolicyForeign AffairsFosters international links involving tourism, Affairs and TradeInformationTradeincluding international expositions; inputs into tourism policy decisions affecting broader diplomatic considerations, e.g. Antarctic tourism policy; international agreements, treaties and trade relations. The Ministry also provides travel advisories. Ministry of EconomicPolicyEconomicDevelopmentThe Ministry of Economic Development works DevelopmentOperationsIndustry and Regionalacrossthepublicsectortoadviseon, Information Development coordinate and align activities that stimulate Commerce economic development. Tourism-related Small Business responsibilities andactivitiesnotincluded Energywithin theMinistryof Tourism include funding ConsumerAffairs for major events; Kiwi-made campaign; consumer and business rights and responsibilities; economic development, innovation and small business activities; energy strategy. Public health and public safety sector PublicHealthGroup– PolicyHealth Act 1956HealthManages and regulates activities including Ministry of HealthOperationsthose affecting public health. Occupational SafetyRegulationOccupational SafetyLabourThe prevention of harm to employees at work and Health Service – Policyand Health Act 1992and visitors to workplaces. Department of Labour New Zealand PoliceOperationsPoliceProtection of the public from criminal activity; Regulationtraffic service compliance; search and rescue coordination. Transport and transport safety sector Ministry of TransportPolicyTransport Act 1962TransportProvides advice and information relating to the promotion of safe, sustainable transport at reasonable cost; sets government framework for the transport sector; is the lead department for government policy on external aviation links. Transit New ZealandOperationsTransit New ZealandTransportControls and manages state highways; (Crown agency)PolicyAct 1989includes guideline roads in national parks and Informationconservation reserves; also controls signage. Civil Aviation AuthorityPolicyCivil Aviation Act 1990TransportControls and monitors safety and security in (Crown agency)Regulationcivil aviation, including provision of safety and security information, and policy advice to government.
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Table 7.3(continued) AgencyPrincipal roles*Enabling legislationResponsible ministerPrincipal tourism-related functions Land Transport Safety Operations Land Transport Act TransportPromotes land transport safety; includes Authority (Crown Regulation 1993; monitoring safety standards, education agency)PolicyTransport Services programmes, licence and regulation of Licensing Act 1989passenger services industry. Maritime Safety RegulationMaritime Transport ActTransportPromotes and monitors standards for safe Authority (Crown 1994; Marine Pollution shipping and the protection of the marine agency)Act 1974environment. Airways New ZealandOperationsCertified by the Civil TransportSole-provider status to deliver air traffic control (Airways Corporation Aviation Authority and advisory services in national and of New Zealand) under the Civil international airspace, encompassing area (Crown agency)Aviation Act 1990control, approach control and flight information services. Border security New Zealand RegulationCustoms and ExciseCustomsEnsures smooth passage of people and Customs ServiceAct 1996products in and out New Zealand; controls prohibited or restricted products; agent for New Zealand Immigration Service at boom control points, such as airports. Immigration New Operations Enforces immigration ImmigrationProcesses visa applications for people wanting Zealand Service Policylaw and regulations to stay for longer than three months in New (part of Departmentunder the ImmigrationZealand. of Labour)Act 1987 Ministry of Policy Biosecurity Act 1993AgricultureManages risks associated with introduction of Agriculture and Operationsunwanted organisms, including inspection of Forestry (Quarantine aircraft in compliance with New Zealand Service, Biosecurity Customs. Biosecurity New Zealand is New Zealand)responsible for the implementation of the nationalBiosecurityStrategydeveloped in2003.