events from the perspective of the audience. More importantly, the very concepts of theatre and performance, steeped in tradition and culturally distinctive, lie at the foun- dation of event design. And theatre is relevant to all forms of event, from sports (espe- cially ‘professional’ wrestling, which hopefully everyone recognizes as being staged), to meetings (the ‘drama’ of debate and the ‘staging’ of presentations) to festivals (‘rites and rituals performed’ for the audience, and including the audience) to trade shows (replete with entertainment and ‘showmanship’).
have such an important role to play in creating the desired experience. Accordingly, everyone has to have a script. What Pine and Gilmore wanted to stress is that work, in the workplace, should also be thought of as theatre. And of course if the theatre is inter- active, involving the audience by way of activity and mental/emotional immersion, the experience will be that much more unique and memorable. Finally, Schechner defined ‘performance’ as being dependent on having an audience. Performances are perceived or simply enjoyed. An interaction has to occur, but the ‘audience’ does not necessarily have to appreciate that they are part of a performance or being influenced by a script.
Forms of Theatre
(Figure 6.11)Schechner also differentiated between four basic forms of theatres, each embodying varying degrees of being scripted in combination with stable or dynamic performance.
The first is ‘improvisation’ (or ‘improv’), a form of theatre in which the script is very flexible and the outcomes unpredictable. It is most used for comedy, but also seems to describe many flash-mob events. Improvisation actually requires preparation and many skills to be effective as theatre or to be used in a special event. Audiences should quickly appreciate that they are part of an experiment and the journey they are taking with the performers is going nowhere in particular, or inevitably will result in surprises. At a minimum, ‘improv’ events need a premise or a scenario, a starting point or concept. They offer great scope for audience involvement.
Street theatre Improv theatre
• Dynamic performance • Dynamic script
• Stable script • Stable performance Platform theatre Matching theatre
• Stable performance • Dynamic script
• Stable script • Dynamic performance
Figure 6.11 Schechner’s (1988) four forms of theatre.
In stark contrast to the ‘improv’ is the ‘platform’ theatre that we associate with plays and musicals. The performance is generally fully scripted (memorized and rehearsed) and the performers clearly separated from the audience. In these types of event the guest is seldom motivated to attend twice, unless the excellence and subtleties of the show encourage a desire for deeper understanding; unless it is so enjoyable that experi- encing it again is more enjoyable!
‘Matching theatre’ is edited like a film or television show. Someone has to put it together to create a coherent whole. The audience can be asked to move about a venue, as in some murder mystery performances, trying to form a mental picture of everything that is happening, despite discontinuities in both space and time.
‘Street theatre’, otherwise known as performances by buskers, or travelling minstrels, can be informal and highly individualistic or packaged within festivals. The enter- tainers have to put on a show, first drawing the audience then engaging them suffi- ciently to secure a voluntary financial reward. Ordinary space has to serve as a stage, and in some cases can be incorporated into the act, becoming really unique, temporary event settings. Their script has to be relatively stable, after all they are jugglers, or fire- eaters, or singers or clowns. But each performance is also going to be a unique blend of audience–performer interactions, setting (imagine the street noise) and programme (they have to posses an adaptable repertoire in terms of specific acts, and be able to alter their sequence, timing, etc.).
Chapter Summary
Closely related professional fields were discussed as to their links with and contribu- tions to Event Studies. These fields all involve events to some extent, so Event Studies, as it develops, can feed back important concepts to them. Note how each field has to draw upon foundation disciplines for theory and methodology, and how the ways in which they apply theory suggests possibilities and direct applications for Event Studies.
Leisure Studies is very important, particularly in terms of its application of social psych- ology to the understanding of play, leisure experiences, needs and motives, benefits, constraints, and the related concepts of serious leisure, commitment, involvement and recreation specialization. While those theories pertain mostly to intrinsically motiv- ated event behaviour (i.e., freely attending events for personal benefits), there are also profound implications for designing event settings and experiences, such as the con- cepts of ‘peak experience’ and ‘flow’ as they pertain to our model of what happens in the ‘Liminal/Liminoid Zone’.
Tourism has great relevance to Event Studies both in understanding the destination approach to developing and marketing event tourism and to segmenting the event tourist. Many events are specifically part of cultural tourism, while equal attention has to be given to sport, business and other travel markets. Each of the five main economic and tourism roles of events has been given considerable attention in the research literature.
Hospitality, and closely related venue management, focuses on the providers of venues and services for events. Host–guest interactions, and what it means to provide hospi- tality, are the key concepts of value to event management.
Education contributes learning theory which is critical in meetings, conventions, scien- tific congresses and symposia. Principles and methods of interpretation are vital in shap- ing planned event experiences and giving them meanings. Communications, media and performance studies are inter-related. We need ‘information theory’ for event marketing
and for understanding why events are ‘media’ for change in society. Performance studies specifically relate to theatre studies and all planned events draw from these two fields.
There is a strong thread of symbolic ‘interactionism’ in performances. In theatre studies the importance of different forms of theatre, staging and scripting are emphasized, with clear applications to planned events. Cultural Studies should be read in conjunction with cultural anthropology, sociology and media studies. Scholars in cultural studies take a critical perspective on popular culture which includes many forms of event.
Sport events are of central interest in sport management and sport tourism has become global big business. In terms of sport studies, sport sociologists, psychologists, historians and economists all make a contribution to knowledge about sport organizations, sport events, athletes and fans.
Study Questions
● Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations as they apply to events.
● Discuss the relevance of serious leisure, recreation specialization, involvement and commitment to Event Studies.
● In what ways can all planned events be considered part of cultural tourism?
● How can events contribute to destination image enhancement?
● Why exactly are venue managers and hospitality professionals involved with planned events? What can their field contribute to Event Studies?
● How can learning theories be applied to events?
● Discuss the meaning and applications of thematic interpretation.
● Show how to apply information theory to the study of events and for event marketing.
● What are the fundamental principles of performance? Link performance to social interaction theory.
● Distinguish between cultural management and cultural studies.
● Apply Schechner’s four forms of theatre to other forms of planned events.
● In terms of experiences, are all planned events similar to theatre?
Further Reading
Gibson, H. (ed.) (2006a). Sport Tourism: Concepts and Theories. London: Routledge.
Masterman, G., and Wood, E. (2006). Innovative Marketing Communications: Strategies for the Events Industry. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
McPhail, T. (2006). Global Communication: Theories, Stakeholders, and Trends (2nd edn.).
Blackwell Publishers.
Schechner, R. (1988). Performance Theory. New York: Routledge.
Schechner, R. (2002). Performance Studies: An Introduction. New York: Routledge.