Many event tourists are ‘cultural tourists’ – that is, they are seeking cultural experi- ences – while other events certainly can be designed to deliver cultural experiences. The
Travel Industry Association of America, together with the Smithsonian Magazine (2003), reported on The Historic/Cultural Traveller. They found ever-increasing demand, with 81% of Americans who had travelled in the past year considered to be ‘historic/cul- tural’, based on their interests and activities. For 30%, their choice of destination was influenced by a specific cultural event or activity.
Although there are many definitions of cultural tourism in the literature, McKercher and du Cros (2002: 3) said it can be approached from four perspectives: ‘tourism derived’ (a form of special interest travel; a product); ‘motivational’ (what travellers are looking for, including visits to the arts, monuments, festivals); ‘experiential’ (an emphasis on cultural learning; the quest for understanding and self-fulfilment) and ‘operational’ (related to the purpose of the study, as in this case to examine festivals as a form of cultural tourism).
They also postulated (p. 16) seven possible relationships between tourism and cultural heritage assets, ranging from ‘full cooperation’ to ‘full conflict’, and this provides a framework for investigating the marketing and tourism orientation of cultural festivals.
The in-between categories include ‘working relationships’, ‘peaceful co-existence’, ‘par- allel existence/blissful ignorance’, ‘mild annoyance’ and ‘nascent conflict’.
In terms of planning and developing cultural tourism, McKercher and du Cros (p. 186) employed a ‘Market Appeal-Robusticity’ matrix which bases tourism potential on an evaluation of the asset’s (in our context, planned events) market appeal and its ability to cope with visitors ‘. . . or to be modified in a way that does not compromise its values’.
Different strategies are therefore required for festivals that have strong touristic appeal but are not robust, compared to those with little appeal but substantial robusticity.
Although criteria were suggested for tangible heritage assets (p. 191), little has been said about events – especially regarding their robustness/adaptability versus cultural signifi- cance and authenticity. In other words, is it possible and legitimate to turn any or all cultural festivals into tourist attractions?
Ideally, many events should attract a segment that McKercher and du Cros (2002: 148) called the ‘purposeful cultural tourist’ who wants a deep cultural experience and has been motivated to travel to a destination by its cultural attractions. However, the event organizer must also prepare for visitors with lesser need for cultural experiences, including those who are not really attracted by culture at all (in other words, they are seeking other benefits such as fun, social opportunities, or are motivated by escapism).
Research Note
McKercher, B., Mei, W., and Tse, T. (2006). Are short duration festivals tourist attractions? Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14(1): 55–66.
These researchers profiled attendees at three Hong Kong festivals with a view to determining their roles in attracting tourists to the territory. McKercher and du Cros’ (2002) cultural tourist classification system was employed, distinguishing between the ‘serendipitous cultural tourist’, the ‘purposeful’, ‘sightseeing’, ‘casual’
and ‘incidental’ types. Visitors were largely ignorant of both the existence and meaning of the festivals. They drew mainly from the small pool of long-haul, long-stay, first-time visitors. Only about 25% of respondents indicated the festivals had any impact on their decision to visit Hong Kong or extend their stay. However, the festivals did contribute to the exoticness of Hong Kong, its cultural uniqueness, and this ‘marker’ can be more important than their actual power in attracting tourists. The authors recommended that local festivals be pro- moted before visitors arrive so that the stay can be planned to include them, as each one can be a full day’s com- mitment. Bundling festivals, so that there is something on all year, is another approach and would require close cooperation between event organizers and the DMO.
Hospitality Management and Hospitality Studies
(Figure 6.3)This professional field is focused on hotels, resorts and food and beverage services (e.g., catering, restaurants and bars) and often encompasses elements of the travel and tourism industry. Some diploma and degree programs specialize in clubs, business and industry dining, leisure services, campus dining, convention facilities, transporta- tion, theme parks, state and national park operations and casino operations. Increasingly convention and event management is included within hospitality curricula. Frequently hospitality and tourism programs are integrated within business schools, and in some cases with sport and leisure as well.
Hospitality Nature and Antecedents Planning and Outcomes Processes and management meanings: to attending producing and the patterns
• Hotel, resort, the event events events impacted restaurant experience
management;
service provision;
gastronomy; events as ‘functions’
Hospitality studies • Receiving • Service quality • Service quality • Business • The
• Studies hospitality as a determinant • Atmospherics impacts competitive host–guest at events of future • Technical • Client and environment interactions and (being a demand considerations guest for events is interdependencies guest) • Growth in (lighting, satisfaction dynamic
• The nature of • Corporate demand for sound, safety, • Rising hospitality and hospitality corporate and health) expectations
service as a unique private events as for quality
event as professional experience services
Figure 6.3 Hospitality management and hospitality studies.
At San Francisco State University (www.sfu.edu/hm) hospitality is located within the College of Business:
The interdisciplinary program provides an academically sound business foundation with core hospitality management courses and specialized classes in each concentration. This curriculum prepares highly profes- sional and marketable specialists to manage complex and diverse hospitality organizations.
Hotel, club, convention centre and restaurant managers are responsible for the events or ‘functions’ markets in their properties, while many resorts specialize in festivals and sport events suited to their recreational amenities and beautiful settings. The most common ‘functions’ held in hotels, restaurants and other hospitality venues are:
● weddings with banquets;
● private parties (graduations, bar and bat mitzvahs);
● meetings and conventions;
● consumer and trade shows;
● entertainment events;
● corporate functions like product launches.
For hospitality establishments to enter the conventions or exhibitions market they must have special-purpose facilities, equipment and services above and beyond the usual catering competencies. An important trend is the use of unique, non-traditional venues for meetings and conventions, such as museums, historic houses or even zoos.
Most hospitality programs are applied in nature, usually requiring hands-on training and job experience. At the university level there is increasing emphasis on hospitality studies, or the academic bases for a professional career in hospitality. This foundation has to include general business management, services management and marketing, the special management challenges of hospitality venues and events or functions – often tied to catering.
As its core phenomenon, hospitality studies deals with formal, usually commercialized, host–guest interaction and interdependence. To be a ‘host’ in this context entails legal and social responsibilities, and requires an understanding of service provision both as a business, a technical skill, and a fundamental aspect of human nature.
Education and Interpretation
(Figure 6.4)
Education and informal learning are embodied in many types of planned events, notably meetings and conventions, but little attention has been paid to the educational
roles of events in general. A study by Gitelson et al. (1995) was a rare look at the edu- cational objectives of an event and related effectiveness.
Sponsors and social marketers are very concerned with how to best get across their messages to event audiences. We also need to be concerned with how events them- selves can be interpreted, for example to explain symbolic and culturally significant elements to visitors, and to engage visitors more through learning opportunities at events. The event designer and programmer therefore has to draw upon the education and interpretation fields, including their understanding and use of cognitive psych- ology and learning styles.