‘Social Exchange Theory’ (Hormans, 1958) suggests that social action is different from straightforward economic actions within a marketplace (i.e., buying and selling), because social actors expect and receive rewarding reactions. Resource exchanges (as well as the bestowal of prestige or support) are, in this context, the result of free, per- sonal choice based on assessment of expected costs and benefits. People can feel pres- sure to give, but exchanges should balance out over time. The theory also embodies the concepts of power and dependency within relationships and social networks.
In the context of Event Studies this theory has been used to explain variation in resi- dent perceptions of, or attitudes towards events. For example, people benefiting from event tourism will tend to be positive in their attitudes towards the event and its continuance, while people perceiving no benefit tend to be more critical and less supportive.
Chapter Summary
As a field of study, Event Studies must use and adapt theories, methodologies and research methods from many foundation disciplines, especially those in the social sci- ences. The potential for drawing on them to expand our knowledge base in Event Studies is almost unlimited.
From anthropology comes basic knowledge and important theory about human cul- ture and specifically celebrations, rites and rituals. Why people attend and value cer- tain events is in part culturally determined, as is the variation in forms and functions around the world. Determining what is authentic in the programming of events requires a foundation in cultural anthropology. The theory of liminality, rooted in studies of rites, pilgrimages and celebrations, is important to our understanding and conceptualization of the planned event experience. The theme of cultural impacts also draws on anthropology, especially in the context of host–guest interactions, and we can make good use of ethnography and observation techniques in event-related research.
Cultural policy is one of the main processes affecting planned events.
Sociology contributes to our understanding of why and how people attend events, both in terms of social trends and because social interaction (family and friends) is one of the main intrinsic motivators; social networking is one of the key extrinsic motiv- ators (as in ‘doing business’). Organizational behaviour studies rely on sociology, thereby providing a foundation for management. Understanding of social groups, sub-cultures and crowd behaviour draws from this discipline. Social constructs are important when considering the form of events, and in assigning meanings to them. Social policy impacts on planned events in a major way.
Psychology provides several essential theoretical perspectives for Event Studies, includ- ing personality (which influences values, attitudes, motives and behaviour) and cognition – the ways in which people perceive, experience and learn. Basic human needs are expressed in both physical and psychological terms. Much of what we know about consumer behaviour is generated through psychological research, including experimentation.
Two sub-fields of psychology have special significance for Event Studies. Environmental psychology applies cognitive theory to help us understand and design better event settings. There are theoretical foundations for stimulating all the senses, site planning, managing crowds, environmental management to ensure green events and thematic interpretation. The ‘behaviour setting’ of planned events requires careful attention to how people interact with each other and the setting.
Social psychology provides strong theoretical support for understanding and design- ing social settings. Social cognition, including self-efficacy theory, provides a basis for understanding leisure motivation and how people make leisure choices. Social role schemas affect how people relate to each other, as in event crowds. Consumer psych- ology draws heavily from the theory of planned behaviour and expectation confirma- tion, while social exchange theory helps explain resident perceptions of, and attitudes toward event impacts.
Study Questions
The ensuing Study Questions contain two important points from each of the disci- plines covered. Ideally, for foundation discipline you will be able to summarize the main topics they cover, their core theories and methodologies, and types of research methods used.
● What is culture and how is it studied?
● Explain ethnography and how it can be used in Event Studies.
● Demonstrate how the main themes of sociology can be applied to event management.
● Connect social network and stakeholder theories in the context of planned events.
● Show how cognitive psychology supports our understanding of the planned event experience and why people attend events (be sure to include personal constructs).
● Why is theory about personality important for event marketing?
● Explain the Integrative Model of Environmental Psychology as adapted to Event Studies.
● Link the concept of behaviour settings to event design.
● Why are self-cognition and self-efficacy theories important to understanding the planned event experience?
● In what ways can we use social exchange theory in Event Studies?
Further Reading
Schultz, E., and Lavenda, R. (2005). Cultural Anthropology: A Perspective on the Human Condition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Crouch, G., Perdue, R., Timmermans, H., and Uysal, M. (eds). Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure, Vol. 3. Cambridge, MA: CABI Publishing.
Bell, P., Greene, T., Fisher, J., and Baum, A. (2001). Environmental Psychology (5th edn).
Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.
Mannell, R., and Kleiber, D. (1997). A Social Psychology of Leisure. State College, PA:
Venture Publishing Inc.