Chapter 4: This chapter presents the research findings starting with sample realization, demographic data, teaching strategies used at postgraduate nursing programme, methods that
2.20 Adult Learners and Innovative Teaching Methods
Gravani and Jimoyiannis (2008) conducted a qualitative study in Greece using focus groups with the aim of developing adult learners‟ technical and social skills within the educational process, and to create networks of co-operation between the school, local community, the business world and education. Participants were 28 adult learners and 8 educators who were the key units of the analysis. The findings of the study revealed that teaching methods and practices among others promote personalized teaching, experiential learning, self- motivation, students‟ active involvement in process and decision making, and critical thinking.
Further findings revealed that the SCS programmes administered are flexible and innovative educational programmes. A recommendation was made for further research into digital literacy in relation to adult learners.
A quantitative study was conducted by Wang (2008) about teaching methods and Bloom‟s taxonomy with the purpose of determining whether adult teaching methods were driven by lower thinking skills in relation to the first three levels of Bloom‟s taxonomy characterized by knowledge, comprehension and application. The study consisted of 389 participants at departments of continuing education at different universities in the city of Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhon. Findings of this study revealed that Chinese adult teaching methods and Western approaches represent two polarized points of view. Teaching in China has relied on
66 conventional ideas and an orientation to knowledge comprehension and application of knowledge which comprise the first three levels of Bloom‟s taxonomy (Chen, 1981). Further findings revealed that Chinese educators maintained that all education encompasses two goals:
teaching books and teaching learners (as cited in Wang, 2007). On the contrary, many Westerners prefer student-centred teaching as this manifests „andragogical‟ philosophy (Jarvis, 2002; Knowles, Holton, and Swanson, 2005).
According to King (2005) and Mezirow (2000) more research in the West found that schools have been advocating the use of transformative learning in adult education. The key to transformative learning is that learner‟s critical reflections are closely related, which aligns to the Bloom‟s higher level taxonomy. As observed by international scholars (Boyle, 2000) the findings showed that Chinese teachers clung to their traditional pedagogical outlook, tending to emphasize knowledge, content, teacher-centred classrooms, and examination results. As noted by Boyle, (2000), Chinese teachers tend to stick to the textbook, which is often the same one almost throughout the country. According to Wang (2007), teaching in China is focused exclusively on transmitting orthodox subject knowledge; concepts such as flexibility, problem solving, critical thinking, and independent learning are not recognized. This research is only one-sided in the sense that it focused on teaching methods of teachers of adults. A recommendation was made for further research to focus on the part of adult students themselves: a) how much do teaching methods affect student learning outcomes? b) How is adult education viewed by those adult learners? c) What part of their lives is prescribed by formal education?
67 2.21 Gender and Adult Education
Stone (2008) conducted a qualitative study on the mature-age student gender equity with the purpose of voicing student experiences, their triumphs, achievements as well as their struggles. The participants were 20 female and male mature-age students. The study findings revealed that while there are significant changes in identity for both men and women in higher education, the change in identity for women is particularly profound.
Wolf-Wendel and Ward (2003) refers to the multiplicity of women‟s roles and gendered expectations of family obligations and the ongoing disparity with which women take on the second shift of maintaining children and home. Other feminist writers perceive that society places a different value on „men‟s time‟ and „women‟s time‟, with „men‟s time‟ being seen as more valuable and productive (McNay, 2000). Hughes, (2002) with similar views as those of Wolf-Wendel and Ward, pointed out that gender plays an important role in adult learner participation in higher education. Cullity (2006) made recommendations that institutions provide specific programmes and ongoing support to enable men and women students not merely to enter university, but also to find the encouragement to help them stay and succeed in the programme.
Aiken (2001) conducted a study from a black feminist perspective into the factors that motivate or hinder participation of black women in nursing education in the USA. Results showed that gender and race were significant factors. Black women were aware of themselves as being „the other‟ in the classroom, and their experience of culture racism at individual and institutional level discourages participation. Further findings revealed that the women believe their position in society is replicated in the educational environment.
68 Studies that were conducted by Murphy (2003) in the UK and (Belenky 1986, 1999) in the USA have drawn attention to the affiliation needs of learners as a vital component of the learning process, particularly for women. Betts (1999) and McGivney (1999) cited in Murphy (2003), confirmed that gender differences exist as triggers which affect mature adult learners‟
involvement and retention in higher education. Furthermore, male students are more motivated by employment prospects than women, and men find the support of tutors and peer less significant.