Chapter 4: This chapter presents the research findings starting with sample realization, demographic data, teaching strategies used at postgraduate nursing programme, methods that
2.6 Self-Directed Learning
32 instructor is based on their previous levels of knowledge of the topic. If they have limited knowledge, they will depend on the instruction alone.
Pratt (1993) concluded that while „andragogy‟ may have contributed to our understanding of adults as learners, it has done little to expand or clarify our understanding of the process of learning, nor has it achieved the status of a theory of adult learning. Smith (2002) pointed out that Knowles‟s concept of „andragogy‟ is an initial attempt to build a theory of adult learning; it is related to the characteristics of adult learners. Smith also noted that Knowles‟s theory uses a model of relationships from humanistic clinical psychology. Knowles, however, also built on behaviourist theory by encouraging the learner to identify needs, set objectives and enter learning contracts. In the study by Schapiro (2003), „andragogy‟ is not perfect, but it represents an attempt to understand the difference between adult and childhood learning. In his findings, he further explored issues of power and social justice in society and in the educational process, the need for critical reflection as a necessary component of an adult learning process, the crucial place of dialogue and discussion as a means for learning and recognition of multiple ways of knowing and learning. A recommendation was made for continued research into the theories that are important for the development of appropriate adult educational programmes: these should be considered by educators as they work with adult learners.
33 learning do not necessarily follow a definite set of steps or linear format. In essence, self-directed learning occurs both by design and chance depending on the interests, experiences, and actions of individual learners and the circumstances in which they find themselves.
Merriam and Caffarella (1999) describe self-directed learning as a process of learning in which people take the responsibility for planning, carrying out, and evaluating their own learning experiences. According to Lowry (1989) self-directed learning is another central concept in adult education and suggests that the locus of control in learning lies with the adult learner who may initiate learning with or without assistance from others. Yi (2005) suggest three methods to foster learning in adult organizations: a) Problem-based learning which seeks to increase problem- solving and critical thinking skills b) Cooperative learning which builds communication and interpersonal skills and c) Situated learning which targets specific technical skills that can be directly related to the field of work. These methods support the assumptions about how adults learn specifically; they are more self-directed and have a need for direct application to their work, and are able to contribute to collaborative learning through their experience.
The study above by Yi (2005) is congruent with Garrison (1997), who suggested that three dimensions indicate learners‟ taking control of and shaping the contextual conditions. Yi further explored that self-monitoring describes learners‟ ability to monitor their cognitive and metacognitive processes, to use a repertoire of learning strategies, and to think about their thinking processes. Merriam and Caffarella (1999) concluded that the majority of self-directed models reflect only the first goal. They further reflected that self-directed learning tends to promote individual freedom based on an established value system; however, it fails to recognize that learning can be viewed as a social and political process where learners change their
34 emancipator knowledge. Knowles (1975) in his study puts forward three immediate reasons for self-directed learning. He argues that there is convincing evidence that people who take initiative in learning (proactive learners) learn more things, and learn better than do people who sit at the feet of teachers passively waiting to be taught (reactive learners). The findings revealed that the former type of learner enters into learning more purposefully and with greater motivation. They also tend to retain and make use of what they learn better and longer than do the reactive learners.
As Merriam and Caffarella (1991) commented, this means of conceptualization of the way we learn on our own is very similar to much of the literature on planning and carrying out instruction for adults in formal institutional settings. Spear, Mocker (1984, 1988) quoted in Merriam and Caffarella (1991:46-8) found, however, that self-directed learners, rather than pre- planning their learning projects, tend to select a course from limited alternatives which happen to occur in their environment and which tend to structure their learning projects. Brookfield (1995) commented that studies were conducted mostly with middle class subjects; that issues concerning the quality of self-directed learning projects were being ignored and that they were treated as disconnected from wider social and potential forces. Collins (1988); Candy (1991);
Brocket and Hiemstra (1991) reflected meta-analysis of research and theory conducted by Australian, Canadian, and American authors that have raised questions about the political dimension to self-direction and the need to study how deliberation and serenity intersect in self-directed learning projects.
According to Field (1991) there has also been a spirited debate concerning Australian criticism of the reliability and validity of most self-directed learning. In a study by Hammond
35 and Collins (1991), they reflected that at least one book written on the South African adult educational experience, has argued that self-direction must be seen as firmly in the tradition of emancipator adult education. The findings revealed that a number of important questions remain regarding understanding of self-direction as a defining concept for adult learning. A recommendation by Brookfield (1995) was made for further research on more longitudinal and life history to understand how periods of self-direction in adults as learners alternate with more traditional forms of educational participation.