Chapter 4: This chapter presents the research findings starting with sample realization, demographic data, teaching strategies used at postgraduate nursing programme, methods that
2.2 Learning Theories
According to Hill (2002), learning theories have two values a) provision of vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that are observed b) suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. Work by Gold (1999) and Reeves (1994) discussed the two major educational philosophies that have emerged. The „instructivist‟
and constructivist approaches to teaching and learning are considered to lie at either end of the continuum. The findings revealed that in an „instructivist‟ approach, the instructor sets performance objectives and develops a systematic approach to the learning content that is independent of the learner. By contrast, the constructivist philosophy places the emphasis on the
24 adult learner and the learner‟s interpretations through self-directed explorations. According to the work by Merriam and Caffarella (1999), learning theories have their basis in philosophy and provide the overall framework for teaching and learning activities.
In line with Merriam and Caffarella (1999), Frey and Alman (2003) contended that learning is about change. The results showed that adult learning theory helps teachers to understand their students and to design more meaningful learning experiences for them. The findings further indicated that there is no one learning theory that successfully applies to all learning environments.
The study by Von Glasersfield (1989), argued that the responsibility of learning should reside increasingly with the learner. On that note social constructivism thus emphasizes the importance of the learner‟s being actively involved in the learning process, unlike previous educational viewpoints where the responsibility rested with the instructor to teach and where the learner played a passive, receptive role. Von Glasersfield emphasized that the learners construct their own understanding and that they do not simply mirror and reflect what they read. Learners should look for meaning and try to find regularity in the events of learning and even in the absence of full or complete information. Learners are challenged within close proximity to, yet slightly above, their current level of development. By experiencing the successful completion of challenging tasks, learners gain confidence and motivation to embark on more complex challenges.
25 2.3 Theories Underpinning Adult Learning
The basic definitions of adult learning were built on the idea of change in behaviour.
Adult learning theories in and of themselves have arrived at very little consensus (Christman, Carman, and Jabenz, 2006). There is great debate on an actual determined number of theories that are even possible, still more on labelling those theories into groups. Overall it seems that the theory of adult learning is broken down into processes that create change within the individual and process to infuse change into adult education i.e. different theoretical perspectives on adult learning and teaching are critically examined and the arguments for and against the concept of
„andragogy‟ are explored. Access, participation and non-participation are looked at in relation to policies and practice on lifelong learning and social inclusion across the different sectors.
Lifelong learning is a contested and problematical concept and there are various perspectives on this topic.
In Kolb‟s Experiential Learning Cycle, ideally an individual would pass through all four stages (Kolb, 1984). In reality, some stages may be passed over, or one stage may become the primary focus. As described by Kolb, preferences for the concrete experience stage of learning result in learning from specific experiences or from relating to people. When the reflective observation stage is preferred, careful observation and searching for meaning is likely to be evident (Kolb, 1984). A preference for the abstract conceptualization stage will produce logical analysis and systematic planning. The final stage of the cycle involves taking risks and pursuing activities or tasks, behaviours that are observed in an individual with a preference for active experimentation. Kolb takes Lewin‟s original cycle a step further, proposing a specific learning
26 style preference based on an individual‟s utilization of the four learning phases (Kolb, 1984).
The resulting learning styles are „accommodator‟, „diverger‟, „converger‟ and „assimilator‟.
Brudenell and Carpenter (1990) using Kolb‟s Learning Style Inventory with a group of 40 undergraduate registered nurses, found that participants who were assimilators exhibited the most negative attitude to Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI), compared with accommodators, convergers, and divergers. On the other hand Lu, Yu and Liu (2003) examined a variety of factors related to students‟ learning performance in a web-based management information systems graduate course. The findings revealed that other than ethnicity, no factors (such as gender, age, job status, previous computer experience, and learning style preference) had an impact on students‟ e-learning. Another study, by Liegle and Janicki (2006), explored the effect of learning styles on the internet navigation needs of web-based learning. The results showed that student learners classified as „explorers‟ tended to have a higher number of visits to linked web pages whereas students classified as „observers‟ tended to be more passive. „Explorers‟
created their own path of learning (learning control) while „observers‟ followed the suggested path by clicking on the „next‟ button (system control).
Ausburn (2004) completed a study that supported the view that learners with different characteristics may not only prefer, but benefit from different instructional features and goals. In the study of Tweedell (2000), he conceptualized that today most adults‟ learning is an instructor- designed and instructor-led endeavour that occurs in classrooms where students sit to learn from the „sage on stage‟. This is the model with which most adults grew up. Tweedell further explored that many adults wish to take advantage of learning environments, primarily owing to their busy schedules and the learning formats‟ convenience. They are using technology with
27 different sets of expectations that are based on their histories. Instructors need to be aware of what adults want and need. Adult learning theories, such as „andragogy‟, self-directed learning, and transformational theories are important for instructors to understand as they work with adults.