THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.4 Adult learning theories
a. Andragogy
There seem to be a number of parallels between constructivism and the needs of adult learners (Thompson, 2001). As discussed above, the key principles of constructivism include self-regulated learning, prior knowledge and authentic learning tasks for meaningful learning to occur. Similarly, in viewing adult professional development Knowles (1970) proposed a concept of andragogy which is aligned with the theory of constructivism. Knowles’
Andragogical model distinguishes adult learning from pre-adult learning and is grounded on the following assumptions (Knowles, 1998: 64-68; Merriam, 2001: 5):
• The need to know. Adults need to know why they need to learn something before they undertake it.
• The learner’s self-concept. An adult learner has an independent self-concept and can direct his or her own learning.
• The role of the learners’ life experience. An adult learner comes into an educational activity with a great volume of experiences which becomes a rich resource for learning.
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• Readiness to learn. An adult learner has learning needs closely related to changing social roles.
• Orientation to learning. An adult learner is problem-centred and interested in immediate application of knowledge.
• Motivation. An adult learner is motivated to learn by internal rather than external factors.
Knowles (1968) derived the idea of self-directed learning in adults from the perspective that adults manage other aspects of their lives, and are therefore capable of directing, or at least assisting in planning their own learning (Merriam, 2001). The notion of self-directed learning in adult learners has also been expressed by Simpson (as cited in Trotter, 2006) noting as one of the traits of adult learners, the autonomy of direction of learning. As articulated by Trotter (2006: 11), functional theorists such as Simpson, believe that ‘adults prefer to plan their own educational paths, and most generally choose educational topics and subjects that they could directly apply in their own classrooms’. Similarly, Daloz (1999) asserts that adult learners need to plan their own educational paths based on their interests and their classrooms. Trotter (2006) contends that teachers should be given latitude to form their own professional development, dealing with what interests them and what they feel they need to learn for effective learning.
Carlson (1989) related Knowles’ seven step process for working with adult learners:
cooperative learning climate, mechanisms for mutual planning, diagnosis of learner needs and interests, formulation of learning objectives based on the diagnosed needs and interests, sequential activities for achieving the objectives, selection of methods, materials, and resources, and evaluation of learning (Thompson, 2001:19).
Gibb (as cited in Trotter, 2006) earlier developed what is now called the ‘functional theory’
of adult learning. In this theory, Gibb observed adults learning, and later proclaimed that their learning should be problem-centred and meaningful. It is against this backdrop that Knowles reiterated the key assumptions about adult learning being problem-centred, where adult learners are interested in immediate application of knowledge. Adult learners are motivated to learn if the subject matter is relevant to their current role and transition period (Brundage
& Mackeracker, as cited in Trotter, 2006).
74 Adult learners also use experience as the main resource for learning (Knowles, 1968). This proposition has been backed by many scholars including early functional theorist Linderman, Brundage, & Mackeracker; Smith, and Knox (as cited in Trotter, 2006). Another key assumption made by Knowles was that related to the role of teachers’ experience when participating in a learning programme. In Knowles’ perspective, an adult learner has learning needs related to changing social roles. Teachers of Life Sciences in this study are a case in point. As a result of ongoing curriculum reform, teachers continuously develop new learning needs related to their new teaching roles.
b. Adult motivation to learn
Motivation is required to stimulate learners to want to participate in learning, and is also needed throughout the process of knowledge construction (Palmer, 2005: 1855). In Palmer’s view, constructivist theory includes motivation as a ‘necessary prerequisite and co-requisite for learning’ (p. 1855). In the opinion of Barlow (2002), teachers who have an intrinsic need to learn are likely to be satisfied.
Teachers' motivation to engage in professional learning can be viewed within the context of Maslow's theory of human motivation which is based on satisfying a hierarchy of needs (Bennett, 1994; Barlow, 2002). The teachers’ desire to participate in professional development may be seen as a way to satisfy their development needs. Whilst Maslow’s levels of needs include physiological needs; safety needs; belonging needs; esteem needs; and self-actualization needs, it is likely the higher levels, i.e. belonging need, esteem needs and self-actualization needs that relate to teachers’ development needs. For example, collaborations with other teachers of Life Sciences where practical solutions to teaching challenges may be shared are pivotal. This sense of belonging would include teachers’
affiliation to different teacher-social structures such as Cluster groups (teacher networks/learning communities), where there is expected interaction and information-sharing.
At a higher level of need, teachers generally desire to acquire content-related knowledge and overall pedagogical content knowledge which is linked to the development of their self- esteem and confidence to implement the new curriculum. Hence the need to increase one’s scope of knowledge may well fit into Maslow’s esteem needs category. At the highest level of hierarchy, i.e. self-actualisation, adults develop an urge to solve complex problems, a sense of autonomy and self-directedness, an outcome of which is well developed individuals.
75 Self-reflection is important in determining motivation to learn. As noted by Bandura (1986), self-reflection i.e. intrinsic reinforcement, influences learning and behavior which then brings some form of internal reward and a sense of accomplishment once learning has taken place.
Through self-reflection, is self-efficacy belief i.e. people’s judgments of their capabilities to execute courses of action required to attain desired types of performances (Bandura, 1997:
391). Self-efficacy beliefs form the basis for human motivation and personal accomplishment (Bandura, 1997). Teachers’ beliefs about their competences are thus likely to determine their engagement in continuous learning.
Motivation is important not merely because it improves learning but because it also mediates learning (Wlodkowski, 1999). Learners who complete a learning experience feeling motivated about what they have learned are more likely to have a continuing interest in and to use what they have learned (Wlodkowski, 1999). The inference drawn here is that motivation arises intrinsically from the learner and extrinsically from the learning experience.Whilst Knowles (1968) considered an adult learner to be intrinsically motivated, Tough, in Knowles (1998: 68) established through his research, that adult intrinsic motivation to learn is often hindered by barriers such as inaccessibility of learning opportunities, time constraints, and programs that disregard principles of adult learning. Empirical studies have shown that other factors such as lack of finance, workload, etc., often deter adult learners from participating in continuous learning. Clearly, the intrinsic as well as the extrinsic motivation to learn reinforce each other for successful learning.
More often than not, it is the deep social responsibility, i.e. need for competence and being effective at what one does that drives learning among adults (Wlodkowski, 1999). During any curriculum change, teachers feel externally propelled into learning. For successful learning however, the extrinsic goal to learn needs to be self-endorsed and adopted with a sense of volition (Ryan & Deci, 2000: 55). Contextual factors such as the quality of learning programmes and the personal will to learn may either hinder or promote motivation. In essence, there has to be a balance between intrinsic and extrinsic factors which motivate teachers to learn. Individual teachers that develop internal motivation to engage in continuous learning need support from relevant authorities to ensure that external factors that are likely to impinge on teachers’ enthusiasm to learn are eliminated.
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