REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.6 Principles Underlying Continuous Professional Teacher Development
26 to successfully implement modern curricular. Professional development for science teachers needs to pay explicit attention to a range of knowledge bases such as subject matter knowledge, and beliefs about teaching and learning, as well as teachers’ professional contexts (Loucks-Horsely et al., 1998); including elements of teaching scientific reasoning, development of science process skills, problem solving and conducting scientific experiments (Borko, 2004). For science teachers to deliver their teaching efficiently as envisaged in the new science curricular, they must be equipped with all the necessary scientific knowledge and skills (Osman, Halim, & Meerah, 2006). Strengthening science teachers’ content knowledge and pedagogical knowledge has thus become an essential component of any professional development programme (Kriek & Grayson, 2009). This will in turn enhance their confidence to implement novel methods of teaching such as inquiry-based approach.
When teachers embark on a continuous journey of professional development/learning, they hope that they will expand their knowledge and skills and become better teachers. In science, the role of professional development programmes should thus be to advance teachers’
knowledge and practices, which will improve students’ understanding and appreciation of science (Van Driel, 2010).
27 Several scholars (Desimone et al., 2000; Lieberman, 1995; Darling-Hammond &
McLaughlin, 1995) reiterated similar principles of effective professional development.
Similarly, Villegas-Reimers (2003) conducted an international literature review of teachers’
professional development and supported these principles. Villegas-Reimers (2003: 13) reiterated and summarised the features of teacher professional development into the following:
• It is based on constructivism rather than on a transmission-oriented model
• Is perceived as a long-term process as it acknowledges that teachers learn over time
• It is a process that takes place within a particular context; is intimately linked to school reform
• It conceives a teacher as a reflective practitioner
• Is conceived as a collaborative process; may look and be very different in diverse settings.
Based on the above literature review, there has been a general consensus on the principles underlying effective teachers’ professional development. The following is a discussion of some the principles pertinent in this study.
a. CPTD is continuous and ongoing with follow up and support for further learning
A number of scholars (Bredeson, 2002; Lessing & De Witt, 2007; Villegas-Reimers, 2003) concur that a series of related experiences rather than a one-off, isolated learning incident is more effective as it allows teachers to relate prior knowledge to new experiences. This suggests that for professional development to proceed successfully, it should be a continuous process, contributing to the general improvement of education. Ongoing professional development includes the aspect of follow-up support, especially when teachers had been exposed to professional development of a short duration. According to Goderya-Shaikh (2010), follow-up and feedback after a professional development activity leads to transfer of learning in the school classrooms. Continuous support by education leaders can motivate teachers to ensure transfer of learning into school classrooms by the teachers (Goderya- Shaikh, 2010). Continuousness in teacher development should however not be viewed only from the perspective of professional development providers. More importantly, teachers
28 themselves need to view their professional development as a lifelong learning process (Fullan, 1991; Day & Sachs, 2004; Friedman & Phillips, 2004).
b. Is based on constructivism rather than on a transmission-oriented model
Many scholarly authors including Liberman (1994) and Borko (2004) believe that teachers should be treated as active learners, rather than passive recipients. On the contrary, Lessing and de Witt (2007) argue that teachers do not necessarily see professional development as a process of critical thinking, reflection and self-direction. They often rely on rote learning of meaningless facts in their preparation for the teaching profession (Waddington, as cited in Lessing & De Witt, 2007). Research suggests the inclusion of techniques, during professional development, which will improve teachers’ engagement; getting them interactively and highly involved in their process of learning rather than passive involvement (Villegas-Reimers, 2003).
c. Is perceived as a process that takes place within a particular context
As proposed by Kazemi and Hubbard (2008), the impact of professional development in classroom practice is left unspecified in most CPD programmes. Desimone et al. (2002) assert that professional learning activities that focus on instructional practice increase teachers’ use of those practices in the classroom. CPD facilitators therefore need to develop PD tasks and lesson plans that are relevant and can be enacted in classroom situations.
Professional development should involve making learning experiences applicable to the elements that teachers work with daily. According to Putman, Smith, and Cassady (2009), it is the practicality and usefulness of the information learnt through CPD programmes that will enable teachers to link this new information to their own professional and classroom environment and to newly established goals. Hence practical demonstrations during teachers’
learning enhances teacher engagement and enables them to see the concepts in practice (Putman et al., 2009). In brief, there needs to be co-evolution between CPD and classroom practice.
d. Is linked to school or curriculum reform
Educations reforms place high demand on teachers to transform their pedagogy and learn new methods of teaching so that they can properly implement the changes (Bybee & Loucks-
29 Horsley, 2000). For teachers to cope with changes, sustained school-based and curriculum- aligned training may be necessary (Villegas-Reimers, 2003).
e. May look and be very different in diverse settings
Because there is such diversity in educational backgrounds, particularly in the South African context, it is critical to ensure that professional development of teachers take cognisance of contextual factors. Professional development activities need to cater for individual settings such as teacher, learner and school contexts (Guskey, 1995; Evans, 2002). In South Africa, there is need to accurately capture data on teachers’ actual needs for development so that intervention methods can appropriately respond to such needs. A one-size-fits-all approach in the development of teachers practicing in different settings, with disproportionate needs clearly reduces the impact of professional development activities, which has been the case in South Africa (Ono & Ferreira, 2010).
f. Conceives the teacher as a reflective practitioner
There exists a knowledge base in every teacher that enters the profession. Taking into consideration teachers’ prior knowledge, the role of professional development is to assist teachers build and expand their knowledge, thus helping them develop expertise in their fields, (Villegas-Reimers, 2003).
g. Is aligned with student learning needs
During professional development, teachers should be allowed to contribute in planning learning programs (Merriam, 2001). This can be achieved by seeking information on the areas that teachers need to be treated during a professional development activity. This principle also supports adult learning principles. Because practising teachers are adults who generally plan their lives, their professional development should embrace adult learning principles (Knowles, 1968; Trotter, 2006) and be based on their perceived needs.
Literature presented above demonstrates some consensus about the features of effective professional development. There is no doubt that effective professional development is that which takes a constructivist approach; addresses teachers’ needs based on student needs; is contextual and classroom based. A number of scholars however, seem to over-generalise the view that professional development activities should be of longer duration. Whilst this view may true, it should not suggest that all short term PD activities are ineffective. A plethora of
30 literature widely criticises short-duration PD activities and places almost no value on them.
Some scholars have challenged this view, arguing that of utmost importance during professional development of teachers is what is done rather than the amount of time spent (Lauer, Christopher, Firpo-Triplett, & Buchting, 2014; Kennedy, 1999; Desimone et al., 2002; Ingvarson et al., 2005). Citing empirical studies, these scholars have found that the main influence in professional development is generally the extent to which the training activity provides teachers with opportunities for active learning rather than how long it lasts (Kennedy, 1999; Desimone et al., 2002; Ingvarson et al., 2005). This may be particularly true when professional development focuses on developing specific skills where active learning is involved. Even when a PD programme is of short duration, an active learning approach during teacher development is likely to incorporate the other key features of PD discussed above, such as constructivist approach; addressing contextual issues; linking PD activity to classroom settings; aligning PD to student needs. What seems necessary following any short duration PD programs is follow-up and feedback. So, whilst the length of a PD activity is important, a balanced view in literature clearly needs to be considered, ensuring that the value of short-duration PD activities is not diminished.