REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.9 Professional Development as Teacher change
49 A few evaluation studies to determine the impact of the NPDE programme have been conducted (Ngidi, 2005; Ngidi, Sibaya, Sibaya, Khuzwayo, Maphalala, & Ngwenya, 2010), indicating that the programme is equipping the teachers with the necessary competences for their careers. Some teachers, however, indicated a need for further assistance and support after completion of their studies (Ngidi et al., 2010). However, despite the positive evaluation and the DoE’s large investment in the NPDE programmes, the current teaching force continues to manifest poor subject and professional competence (CHE, 2010: 104). The discontinuation of the NPDE and the subsequent introduction of a Bachelor’s degree as an initial qualification for all teachers will hopefully improve the current state of subject matter knowledge, since the B Ed degree allows for fair development of subject matter knowledge.
Although teacher qualifications are continuously reviewed, and access widened, it appears that these efforts are not bringing about any significant changes in the quality of teaching in South Africa. From conception, specialisations of some of these qualifications have been poorly articulated, thus limiting in terms of development of teachers’ subject-specific knowledge. Certain institutions seem to be affected more than the others, suggesting inconsistencies in quality across different institutions. It is perhaps against this backdrop that the CHE sought to once again review teacher qualifications.
50 development as a way to improve their competence and enhance student learning outcomes, a view also held by other researchers, (for example, Fullan, 1991 & Hagreaves, 1996). Guskey (2002) further contends professional development appeals to many teachers because they believe it will enhance their knowledge and skills, contribute to their growth, thereby improving their teaching effectiveness. Guskey (ibid) however cautions that PD programs that fail to meet such expectations are unlikely to influence any changes in teachers’
practices.
Clarke and Hollingsworth (1994: 948) had earlier described six perspectives on teacher change. Within these perspectives, they considered teacher change as ‘something that is done to teachers’ which implied that teachers are changed. The perception that teacher learning is something that is done to teachers has been rejected by some scholars (Clarke &
Hollingsworth, 2002). Increased criticism based on research has provided justification for re- conceptualising teachers’ professional development as ‘professional growth or learning’ or
‘opportunities for learning’ (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002; Johnson, 1996). There has been a considerable shift to the idea of teacher change as a complex process that involves ongoing learning on the part of teachers (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002). Teachers are now considered to be shaping their professional growth through reflective participation in professional development programs and in practice (Clarke & Hollingsworth, 2002: 948).
The perception here is that change is identified with learning, and is regarded as an intrinsic and expected feature of the professional activity of teachers. This idea of teacher learning has culminated in the concept of ongoing lifelong learning where teachers become reflective practitioners through professional development (Fullan, 1991; Day, 1999).
Other key perspectives of teacher change developed earlier by Clarke & Hollingsworth (1994: 948) included:
• Change as adaptation - teachers adapt their practices to changed conditions.
• Change as personal development - teachers seek to change in an attempt to improve their performance or develop additional skills or strategies.
• Change as local reform - teachers change something for reasons of personal growth.
• Change as systemic restructuring - teachers enact the changed policies of the system.
• Change as growth or learning - teachers change inevitably through professional activity; teachers are themselves learners who work in a learning community.
51 Various models have been developed to explain how teachers change through professional development. Earlier models of professional development programs however fell short in considering the process of teacher change (Fullan, 1992). The first models that recognized teacher change subsequent to engaging in professional development, presented divergent views on when the teachers change. These models attempted to change teachers’ beliefs and attitudes, with the expectation that changes in beliefs and attitudes will lead to changes in classroom practices and behaviours. Guskey (1986) pointed out flaws in this view of change and developed an alternative model of teacher change. Guskey’s linear model of teacher change assumes that participation in professional development leads to changes in teachers’
classroom practices, which in turn causes a change in students’ learning outcomes, resulting in changes in teachers’ knowledge, attitudes, and attitudes. In essence, Guskey argued that noteworthy changes in teachers’ beliefs and attitudes are likely to take place only after considerable changes in student learning outcomes.
Figure 2.9.1: A model of teacher change (Guskey, 1986)
On the contrary, Desimone (2009) has recently proposed another model, which somewhat reverts to the earlier models of teacher change. As articulated by Desimone (2009: 184), this model ‘represents interactive, non-recursive relationships between the critical features of professional development, teacher knowledge and beliefs, classroom practice, and student outcomes’.
Figure 2.9.2: Effects of professional development on teachers and students (Desimone, 2009)
Improved student learning Change in
instruction Professional
development
Increased teachers’
knowledge and skills; change in attitudes and beliefs
52 Regardless of when change occurs following professional development, of significance is that a professional development activity should seek to alter and expand teachers’ knowledge, skills and beliefs, which will in turn positively influence their classroom practices, a change in instruction that will foster student learning and improved outcomes. Smith, Hofer, Gillespie, Solomon, & Rowe (2003), proposed three major factors that influence the type and amount of change teachers undergo during professional development. These include:
• Individual factors - their experience, background, and motivation about teaching as they come into the professional development.
• Professional development factors - the quality and amount of professional development attended.
• Program and system factors - the structure of and support offered by the program, adult education system, and professional development system in which they work, including teachers’ working conditions, which is defined as their access to resources, professional development and information (Smith et al., 2003: 2).
In a study to investigate the most influential of the individual factors, Smith et al., (2003) found that motivation to attend the professional development was amongst the most significant individual aspects influencing teacher change. They established that teachers with a strong desire to learn changed more following professional development (Smith et al., 2003). Teachers’ motivation to engage in professional development is thus considered a significant determinant of teacher change (Bell & Gilbert, 1994; Smith & Gillespie, 2007).
Teachers’ motivation to engage in professional development has a direct influence on teachers’ classroom practices (Anderson, 2000; Guskey 2002). It is the teacher’s intrinsic drive towards self-improvement that makes them gain more knowledge during professional development (Komba & Nkumbi, 2008). In the words of Komba and Nkumbi (2008) no amount of pressure from the educational managers can result in teacher change. Each individual teacher has to perceive professional development positively and be willing to learn new knowledge and skills (Komba & Nkumbi, 2008). Alexander (2008) believes that motivation can be stimulated by quality professional development programmes, influencing teachers to attempt new unfamiliar instructional practices in their classrooms, thus fostering change. Investigating teachers’ personal desire and motivation to enhance their professional
53 lives is important because it improves the planning of appropriate content and knowledge prior to engaging in professional development (Grundy & Robinson, 2004; Martinez, 2004).
Harvey (2005: 5) cites other potentially driving factors for teachers to engage in professional learning, which ultimately promote change in teachers’ practices. Some of these factors include:
• Pedagogical content knowledge – professional learning motivated by the opportunity to improve teaching competencies and skills and by the acquisition of knowledge in specific subject areas.
• Serving and enabling students - professional learning motivated by the desire to relate to learners more meaningfully and help them learn better.
• Educational philosophy – professional learning motivated by the exploration of beliefs and values in education and the exploration of educational issues and motivated by the desire to reform educational practice in the school and classroom.
• School support - professional learning motivated by teacher release time and remuneration and leadership, management, and collegial support.
• School/system expectations - professional learning motivated by registration requirements.
Reforms in subject matter standards, curriculum content and pedagogy demand a greater capacity in teachers, expecting then to change their practices (Little, 2002). As articulated by Little (2002), curricular reforms represent a substantial departure from teachers’ previous experiences, established beliefs, and present practice. Mansour et al., (2011), argued that global education reform has created uncertainty, and is becoming increasingly complex and difficult to implement. Fullan, who has written extensively on educational change since the inception of global educational reforms, had also earlier argued that education reform is a much more complex process than it was projected (Fullan, 2007). Fullan (2007) pointed out a number of fundamental flaws even with the successes that have been recorded. For example, he locates the core reason for change failure to infrastructure that is weak, unhelpful, or working at cross-purposes (Fullan, 2007). By infrastructure, he refers to all the relevant stakeholders such as the school managers and the districts. Teacher change, he contends, is largely determined by such factors as the school culture, and in turn, the school’s effectiveness is dependent on the level of support from the district. Sadly, in the South
54 African schooling education system, there appear to be challenges not only within the schools but also with the nature and level of support provided by the districts. Whilst professional development can be used as a vehicle to impact teachers’ practices, there is a strong need for change that will start at the district level, filtering down to school managers and eventually to the teachers. Much consideration needs to go towards improving support for teacher continuous learning and development both from the districts and within individual schools.
On the whole, there is a multiplicity of factors that can promote change in teachers’ practices through professional development. These include factors such as their commitment to change; their effort to implement new teaching methods; their ongoing learning experiences and opportunities; their motivation, interest, morale and professional identity; understanding of reform ideas; the content focus of the PD program; the design of the programs; support from the district officials as well as support from within the schools.