TOI0031
4.4 TOWARDS THE IDENTIFICATION OF THE GODS
4.4.4.8 Conclusion
Houtman (1999:679) states that it is difficult to identify the Queen of Heaven the basis of the available evidence. He reckons that the choice must be made between Anat of the fifth century BC Elephantine papyri, Asherah (2 Ki 21:7; 23:4,7), and the West Semitic Astarte. Equally, King (1998: 106) gives the best possibilities namely Astarte, Ishtar, Asherah and Anat, but does not come to a conclusion. Ackerman (1992:34) suggests that
I Keel 1998:201 comments that the link between Baal and Asherah is still unconfirmed in Northwest Semitic inscriptions up to date. They are only paired in the Biblical texts of the Deuteronomistic redactor.
the Queen of heaven is a fusion between the West Semitic Astarte and the east Semitic Ishtar, which was incorporated in the syncretistic Yahwism. Her choice is based on the fact that Ezk 8:14 mentions women involved in the mourning of the death of the Mesopotamian east Semitic deity Tammuz. Ishtar was the bride or consort of Tammuz (p82). The death of Tammuz is related to the mythic cycle of the dying and rising fertility deity, Baal from Ugarit. Although Ishtar is not mentioned in the aT, she was familiar to the mourning women in Ezk 8:14, because of the syncretistic fusion between Astarte and Ishtar (P91). The Queen of Heaven therefore represents the epithet of an Israelite/
Canaanite creation, which consists of the combination of Astarte and Ishtar.
However, Keel (1998:339. See also n70) is not convinced that the cult of Astarte1 was widespread in Jerusalem and Judah during the pre-exilic period. He supports the proposal of Koch (mentioned in Keel 1998:339 and n70) that the "'Queen of Heaven' should be identified with the Asherah that has been equated with the Assyrian Ishtar." The findings of"asherah-pillar figurines" in private homes, tombs, and palaces (Keel 1998:328ff and n54) and the fact that "Yahweh's Asherah" at Kuntillet 'Arjud and at Khirbet el-Qom, rendered the same services as the Queen of Heaven, i.e. "blessing in the form ofsufficient food, health, and security (Jer 44:17f) ", points in the direction of the Judahite Asherah.
On the basis of iconographic evidence, Keel (1998:340) therefore opts for a combination of the Palestinian Judahite Asherah [Keel (1998:237) views "Yahweh's asherah ..as.. a mediating entity... subordinate to Yahweh."] and the Assyrian Ishtar. Although the Queen of Heaven cannot be viewed as a complete merger between the two, they operated under the epithet each with her own function, e.g. Asherah cared for the deceased, and Ishtar still retained her astral symbolism.
It seems that the identity of the Queen of Heaven is still a secret due to the lack of sufficient evidence. Either the theory posing that the Deuteronomistic polemic against the other gods and goddesses resulted in the loss of their names in texts or that the Massoretes removed the evidence ofIsrael's involvement in idolatry (McKane 1986:170;
Ackerrnan 1992:5n) or both are true. It could also be ascribed to the notion of ANE
I Keel 1998:105 views the tenn Astarte/Astheroth "as a generic indicator and is to be translated as '(protecting) goddesses. '" He therefore does not support the merger between Astarte and Ishtar proposed by Ackennan.
religions to regard the name of a god with respect and not to pronounce it frequently.
Another contributing factor could be ascribed to the ANE tendency to regard the qualities of the god as more important than the name (Houtman 1999:679). Nevertheless, it is clear from Biblical references that the worship of the Queen of Heaven was viewed as idolatrous and illegitimate by the Yahwistic movement. She is regarded as one of the 'other gods' (7:18; 44:8,15) worshipped by Israel. Itis also stated that this sin is the cause of the fall of the temple (7:20), Jerusalem and the land (7:20; 44:6,22). However, the refugees in Egypt claim that the lack of peace and provision is due to their quitting of the practice of the cult of the Queen of Heaven. Both parties in the argument, i.e. the Yahwistic group and the Judahite members of the refugee group, express the belief that the worship of a deity, secures peace and stability as well as fertility rights (Carroll
1986:739).
Although commentators follow Thiel (1973:120) in viewing the expression 'in the towns of Judah and in the streets of Jerusalem' a typical Deuteronomistic phrase, this conforms to the festivities devoted to the Phoenician Astarte from Kittion. Equally, the Deuteronomistic expression 'upon the roofs of their houses' (19:13) may point to the location of the worship of astral bodies and/or the worship of the Queen of heaven, to pour out libations to the goddess(es), especially at night time (Holladay 1986:255). For some scholars it appears that the prohibition of the cult of the Queen of Heaven hints at the minimising of the role of the women in the Yahwistic cult. Bird (1987:411) ascribes the fact that the participation of women was restricted during the pre-exilic and post- exilic periods to the demolishing of multiple cultic centers in order to centralise and control the cult. Reorganisation of the cult, hierarchical struggles and the emergence of the powerful status of the priesthood, all appear to have contributed to a situation of the limited role of the women.
Lastly, the reply of the refugee group to Jeremiah in 44: 16f confirms that the worship of the Queen of Heaven was widely practised by the Judahite families, communities as well as the royal houses and their ancestors in the past (vI7). They probably stopped the worship during the reform of Josiah, but then disaster struck between 597/6 and 587/6 BC. This changed their mind and convinced them that the cult of the Queen of Heaven
would be more beneficial to them. The Yahwistic prophet/author(s) did not share this opinion, although he was on the loosing end because of the destructive conditions in Judah. YHWH provides security, peace and agricultural produce and food. However, he is a jealous deity and demands to be worshipped alone. No other gods or goddesses are allowed to be worshipped, not even the Queen of Heaven, who is regarded by the ANE as the mother of the universe.
4.4.5 Sun, moon and the host of heaven
The occurrences of the description 'host of heaven' and the additions of 'the sun, the moon and stars' in the book of Jeremiah and the rest of the OT need to be supplemented by extra-Biblical information and will be discussed below.
4.4.5.1 Occurrences in the book of Jeremiah
The book of Jeremiah gives more details about the 'other gods' involved in Israel's idolatrous practices in its references1 to the title or description 'the host of heaven' (19:13) and 'the sun and the moon and all the host of heaven' (8:2). However, no name of a specific deity or deities is mentioned. The descriptions of the worship of the 'host of heaven' provide more detail in order to form a picture of this practice. Itwas practised by the kings of Judah, the royal house officials including their employed priests and prophets, as well as the citizens of Jerusalem (mentioned in 8: 1 and 19: 13). The devotees made offerings1on the roofs of their houses to the 'whole host of heaven' (19: 13). Israel has 'loved' (:Jil~),'served' ('::W), 'followed' ('~il), 'inquired' (~") and 'worshiped' (il,n)the sun, moon and the host of heaven (8:2).
4.4.5.2 A Biblical picture of the worship
The picture of the worship of the 'host of heaven' given in the book of Jeremiah, is confirmed and supplemented by several references in the rest of the OT. The prohibition
I The reference in 33:22 refers to 'the host of heaven', which cannot be numbered. It is used in a comparison with 'the sands of the sea', and therefore clearly points to the innumerability of the celestial bodies
of the worship is recorded in Deu 4: 19 and 17:3. Israel was forbidden to 'serve' and to 'bow down' to the sun, moon, stars, and the host of heaven. The conviction of participating in the cult carried the death penalty (17:5). The worship of the host of heaven was widely practised in the Northern Kingdom. Assyria's invasion of the land during the reign of king Hoseah is ascribed to the Northern Kingdom's sin of the worshipping of other gods, among others, the worship of 'all the host of heaven' (2 Ki 17:16).
In the history of Judah, Manasseh (who reigned for fifty five years) is nominated as the main culprit, who among other practices, 'worshiped' and 'served' all the host of heaven.
He also erected altars for 'all the host of heaven' in the two courts of the temple in Jerusalem (vS). In the report on Josiah's reform (2 Ki 23:ff) mention is made of the removal and burning of the 'vessels' made for 'all the host of heaven', which were in the temple (v4). Priests, ordained by the kings of Judah, to make offerings to 'the sun, the moon, the constellations, and all the host of heaven', were disposed of (vS). Josiah also removed 'the horses' located in the precincts at the entrance of the temple, which were dedicated to the sun by the kings of Judah, and he burnt the 'chariots of the sun' with fire (vU). Jeremiah's colleague, Zephaniah (1:5) mentions the priests, who bow down on the roofs to 'the host of heavens' in a context in which the Lord threatens to remove every remnant of Baal (v4) and those who bow down and swear to Milcom (5b).
The above-mentioned Biblical picture bears witness to the widespread worship practices of the cult of the host of heaven in the history of Israel. Itwas practised in the Northern kingdom and prevailed until the fall of Samaria in 721 BC. In Judah it was also a popular cult, at least under the reign of Manasseh until the reform of Josiah. However, it is doubtful whether it was totally extinct, because it did re-emerge after Josiah's death (Ackerman 1992:94).
I The reference in 19.: 13 is followe? by the description "and libations have been poured out to other gods"
(on the roofs of theIr houses), whIch can also be regarded as a reference to a practice in favour of the host of heaven.