3.1 Is Jeremiah present or absent?
3.6.1 The major questions in the debate
became a much-debated issue due to new archaeological, epigraphic and iconographic discoveries. These discoveries resulted in the quest for Israel's true historical origins, the process of the conquest and the pre-exilic existence of the twelve tribes and the monarchy.
The trustworthiness of Biblical sources to provide reliable facts to reconstruct Israel's history became questionable because of presumptions that later exilic and post exilic redactors collected, arranged, and edited much of the Biblical material and utilised it to promote their own political and especially their theological viewpoints. This was followed by late dating of OT texts. Proposed dates vary from exilic to the Hellenistic period.
Together these factors led to a review of the development process of Israeli monotheism.
These viewpoints, which strive to reconstruct a true historical account of Israel, its origins and monotheism from extra Biblical sources, stand in sharp contrast to the traditional Biblical history as presented and interpreted from the OT. I
The debate, especially since the eighties, is marked by the trend to view the development of Israelite monotheism as a slow, gradual process that underwent several stages of a revolutionary development and only came to its fullness much later in Israel's history.
Although it is still regarded by proponents as a unique development in a polytheistic environment, the recording of this phenomenon in the OT is also viewed as a much later occurrence in Israel's history than traditionally accepted.
3.6.2 Biblical evidence reconsidered
The image of Israel's monotheistic faith presented by the OT reflects a peculiar double picture, which must be recognised. On the one hand, multiple references occur in which the prohibition of the worshipping of other gods and commands to worship YHWH alone are explicitly stated (e.g. Ex 20:4; 20:23; 34: 17; Deu 5:8; 10:20). YHWH is exalted as the incomparable in several expressions declaring 'there is none like thee' (e.g. Ex 8:6 (NRSV
,
vl0); 1 Sa 2:2; 2 Sa 7:22; 1Ki 8:23; Jer 10:6,7; Ps 86:8),1 and 'who is like YHWH?' (e.g.
Ex 15:11; Deu 3:24; 4:7; Jer 49:19 = 50:44; Isa 44:7; Job 36:22; Mic 7:18 and multiple references in Psalms)? YHWH is declared as the only God (e.g. Deu 4:35, 39; 7:9; 2 Sa 7:22; 1 Ki 8:60; 2Ki 19: 19; 1 Ch 17:20). Denials of the existence of other gods also occur, especially in Deutero-Isaiah (e.g. Isa 43:10; 44:6 and 8; 45:5,6,14,18,21,22; 46:9), as well as their degrading to a non-god status (2 Ki 19:18 = Isa 37:19; Hos 8:6; Jer 2:11; 5:7;
16:20). These occurrences are clear testimonies of a monotheistic creed, which prohibits involvement in polytheism.
On the other hand, the worshipping of other gods seems to have been a popular practice among the Israelites judging to the references to the presence of household gods among the family members of ancestor Jacob (Gen 31:19; 35:2-4). Despite the denials of the existence of other gods (non-gods), YHWH is also declared to be 'the God of gods, Lord of Lords' (Deu 10: 17). In the days of the Judges conflict flared up between Gideon, his father, and the citizens about idolatry objects, which belonged to his father but also to the citizens. Itreflects the existence of a family and city cult (Jug 6:25-32). Several reports are recorded of cults established by some of the kings as state religion as well as reports
ISee Labuschagne 1966: 11fffor an analysis of these expressions.
2See Labuschagne 1966:20fffor an analysis of these occurrences.
regarding the refonn efforts by other kings to remove the idolatrous objects and practices instituted by their predecessors, are recorded. In the Northern Kingdom e.g. Jeroboam (1 Ki 12:28), and Ahab (1 Ki 16:31-34), were the main protagonists who established and promoted idolatrous state religions. 1Ki 18: 17-40 gives a detailed report of the conflict between Elijah and Ahab's state religion of the Baalim and Asherahs. Jehu also launched extensive refonn efforts (2 Ki 10: 18-28) against the idolatrous institutions of Ahab. In Judah e.g. Ahaziah (2 Ki 8:25-27), Ahaz (2 Ki 16:2-4), and Manesseh (2 Ki 21:2-9) are nominated as the leading idolatrous kings, while Jehoiada the priest (2 Ki 11: 18), king Hezekiah (2Ki 18:4), and finally king Josiah (2 Ki 23:4-15, 24) launched refonn attempts.
The prophetic literature gives account of the condemnations of the prophets against the existence of idolatry practices in which Israel was involved, especially in the books of Amos, Jeremiah, Isaiah, and Deutero-Isaiah.
In sum, the picture presented by the OT literature reflects a complex situation of early polytheism, but also of imported cults, mainly due to royal policies, diplomatic relations or the presence of a conqueror, as well as local Canaanitic influences. It seems that the Israelites also worshipped and inquired other gods and divine objects for assistance over and above YHWH.
3.6.3 Available extra-Biblical evidence
Extra-Biblical evidence, especially from the archaeological excavations and iconographical depictions, indicates the presence of idolatrous practices throughout the different periods covered by the OT. Archaeological findings indicate signs of extensive involvement in the worship of the fertility goddess Asherah, and other Canaanite gods as well as the participation in pagan astral cults, child sacrifice, and cultic prostitution. Only some of the latest findings need to be discussed to illustrate the above mentioned (see Dever 1991: 11 Off for a summary of more findings).
The findings at the shrine of Kuntillet 'Arjud (Kades), dating from the eighth or ninth century BC, produced two inscriptions of significance regarding this statement. The inscriptions read: 'I bless you by Yahweh of Samaria, and by his Asherah', and 'Yahweh of Teman and his Asherah'. A similar inscription comes from Khirbet-el-Qom (Hebron)
dating from the middle of the eighth century BC, and reads: 'Blessed be Uriah by Yahweh and his Asherah'. These discoveries produced a variety of interpretations suggesting that Asherah was a deity, most probably YHWH's consort, or a cultic object, and that Teman, situated in the wilderness, might be a reference to the origins of archaic Yahwism.1
Another contributing discovery is that of the bull-shrine excavated in the heartland of Yahwism, namely on the highlands of Samaria, which dates from the early settlement period. Equally important evidence is provided by the discovery of the cult stand at Ta'nach, where signs of the worship ofYHWH by way of a sun disk image were found, as well as that the worship of Asherah were popular practice during the early history of Israel. On grounds of these discoveries, many scholars have come to the conclusion that the popular religion of the pre-exilic period consists of a polytheistic Yahwism.2
According to proponents of the new theory, these discoveries testify to a situation, which entails more than syncretism between Israelite and Canaanite religions. It rather suggests that a pure monotheistic Yahwism may never have existed, except perhaps among a minority group responsible for the Biblical literature. It is further alleged that Yahwism developed much later from the Canaanite religion during the late pre-exilic, exilic or even the post-exilic period. The Biblical authors did not merely condemn Israel's involvement with the Canaanite cult practices, but in fact attacked the popular early Yahwism, which were essentially polytheistic. In this sense the Biblical writers as representatives of a small minority monotheistic group, described and promoted Israel's religious history according to their perspective of what monotheistic Yahwism should have been (Gnuse 1997:72,73).