CHAPTER 2: THE THEORETICAL CONTEXT
2.2 EVOLUTION OF ORGANISATIONAL THEORY
2.2.8 Contribution of organisational theory in the development of the Incident Command System
The Incident Command System poses several fundamental elements crucial in providing rational theoretical arguments and analysis for the thesis. It is critical to acknowledge that the list of ICS features discussed therein is not all-encompassing but sketch an outline of the synergy in formulating this study.
2.2.8.1 Structure
The establishment of a logical relationship in which the organisation must function is one of the doctrines of the organisational theory. To accomplish the key objectives and efficient operation, hierarchical structure within the philosophies of bureaucracy forms the basis of the classical organisational theory (COT). The hierarchical structure advocates for a controlled decision-making process in different levels of an organisation through the delegation of authority. In addition to controls between superiors and subordinates, this organisational structure relies on position expertise and qualification rather than individuals occupying these positions (Nhema, 2015; Kitana, 2016). In line with Foyols approach, Kitana (2016) further explains that hierarchy should be closely
linked to discipline. This concept advocates for mutual respect within the spectrum of obedience. In summation, an organisational structure may be associated with organisational outputs and regulate the effect of individuality and ensure conformity that will align with the hierarchical demands of the organisation (Khangale, 2016). It should be noted that this setting consequently clarifies and streamlines the lines of communication.
To circumvent miscommunication, especially in tasking individual roles and responsibilities, unity of command is one of the cornerstones of a hierarchical structure. It allows a single order by identifying a single individual to be a supervisor. This approach assists in preventing a chaotic situation of multiple conflicting instructions and subsequently allows the mechanistic
flow of information and tasks. However, unity of command has been criticised for the management of complex disasters such as hurricane Katrina (Nowell and Steelman, 2019). The inefficiency of ICS in complex disaster is associated to its limitation in by-passing the legal and multiple jurisdictional mandates of the responding organisations to command over an incident. Moving past the pros and cons of the system, Nowell and Steelman (2019) advocates for adoption of a network system which will be guided by proactive policy regime that will enable a reasonable division of labour.
2.2.8.2 Division of labour
Division of labour is based on the premise that qualified and capacitated individuals will efficiently implement their work (Kitana, 2016; Nhema, 2015). Moreover, this principle is that no single individual possesses all the skills required for a functional organisation. Aligned to the mechanistic approach, characteristic encompasses formal roles based on rationality and strict adherence to rules and policies. Notwithstanding these qualities, there are situations where rational sub-division of the task to fit certain categories will prove irrational due to jurisdictional complexities and overlaps (Gulick, 1937 cited in Khangale, 2016).
2.2.8.3 Scalar and Functional process
The scalar and functional process refer to expanding the chain and unity of command, delegation of authority, division and functionary of roles and responsibilities. The process further requires one to compartmentalise various scopes of work and facilitate organizational operation. A rigid application of the scalar processes without clear communication and information sharing lines can undermine efficient decision-making (Khangale, 2016). It is further submitted that while adherence to the line of authority is crucial, objective interaction is vital. Thus, function leaders should have some liberty to engage with their counterparts from other units without passing through each step of the hierarchy formally. This will allow for an interactive and efficient way of striving to reach organisational goals
36 and objectives.
Succeeding the discussion above, these three pillars of an organisational theory are mutually linked in terms of the founding principles of understanding the multiple facets of incident management.
Policy developers, academia, and on-scene responders involved in developing the ICS theory has contributed immensely to producing further knowledge from these principles. As such, the system is understood differently. In addition to the influence of one’s career, multiple interpretations result from the type of hazard, geographical, institutional (political and administrative), and financial context in which the system is implemented. In the same vein, the ad-hoc operational implementation of the system without official administrative and political recognition by the adopting sectors within the country contribute to this variability. This is aligned to the characteristic of the Systems Approach, which submits that the environment influences an organisation. In turn, an organisation has the power to affect the environment in which it exists.
On the theoretical level, the fundamental principles of organisational theory provide a comparable use of the Incident Command System as a theoretical tool to analyse the proposed study.
This theoretical contribution will provide a meaningful understanding of incident management in all contexts. One setting that may benefit from this combined perspective is marine oil spills management. The oil and gas industry provides a tremendous economic opportunity for South Africa.
However, the high risk of marine pollution associated with this activity constantly threatens the environmental biodiversity of the country. A comprehensive understanding of how management is founded through ICS application may provide pertinent insights on efficient ways of preventing, responding, and recovering from the impact of environmental pollution in South Africa.
Within the perspective of organisational theory, Digha (2014) observes that ICS constitutes both mechanistic and organic features of the theory. A Mechanistic element (“Machine-like”) within ICS focuses on instituting hierarchy to ensure supervision of personnel, job specialisation and subsequent inflexible division of labour. Furthermore, the lengthy approval process in decision- making associated with short-sightedness, autocracy and inadaptability to changing environments linked to the theory of Taylorism and Webber’s notion of bureaucracy is traceable in ICS (Chang, 2015; Morgan, 2006). Poor productivity and the increased level of work life dissatisfaction are some of the qualities of bureaucracy (Wilson, 1998). Regardless of these challenges, the bureaucracy approach has several benefits to increase the practicality and effectiveness of ICS. Amongst others, the mechanistic features such as the span of control and chain of command have been identified as efficient principles for simplifying reporting lines and eliminating confusion caused by multiple and inconsistent instructions associated with multiagency operations (Jensen and Thompson, 2016).
These inconsistencies are often consequences of behavioural determinants, including mistrust, lack of commitment and resources misalignment. Moreover, observations of management of several cases (Deep Horizon Oil spill response, Montara Disaster; Queensland 2009 spill) has resulted in confusing directives and poor coordination (Epperson, 2011). In contrast to the mechanistic system,
the organic system distinguishes that organisations are comparable to living organisms that must adapt to the unpredictable changing environment for survival (Digha, 2014). Collaborations, communication and overall coordination are the main characteristic required for an organisation’s survival (Daft, 2008). While these aspects resemble some of the qualities of the organic system, it resonates more with the ideologies of modern theory, the combination of the system and the contingency approach. This is because a communication and information sharing system is required in any organisation, and these systems must evolve with changing needs.
Moreover, ICS’ principles of unified command and decentralisation of command (“Area Manager”) which are crucial for the timeous decision-making process and mutual adjustment of labour are also embedded in principles of the systematic approach and the organic approach (Morgan, 2006).
The periodic development of an Incident Action Plan (IAP) for fast- tracking and reaching common objectives within the principles of Unified Command is also associated with the philosophy of the contingency approach because it is the realisation of the need for reprioritisation following the changing situation (Chang, 2015). Unlike the mechanistic system, the organic system and the system approach are characterised by flexible rules, resulting in better adaptability to complex situations such as marine oil spills (Buck et al., 2006). While there is an explicit allowance of flexibility in ICS, the system does not naturally prescribe a straightforward process for dealing with political interference and prolonged legal and socio-economic impacts of the incident (Osofsky, 2013). Table 7 compares the two approaches while providing details on how these theories would contribute to managing marine oil spills.
Table 7: Contribution of the organisational theory to marine oil spill management
Points of
Distinction
Classical Approach
(mechanistic) Neo-Classical Approach (organic)
Modern Theory (System and contingency
approach) Contribution of the organisational theory to oil spill management
Organisational focus
Functions and economic demand
of workers Emotion and human qualities of workers
Enhanced human
collaboration.
Combines the functioning and the human attributes of workers with the apparent involvement of the political arm of government.
Structure of organisation
Impersonal and mechanistic
Social system Depends on the need of an organisation.
Utilise the mechanistic concepts within the formal structure but encourages the social system perspective in the implementation.
Application
Autocratic
management and
strict rules Democratic process Systematic process
Application of strict rules in policy construct and response but allow a liberal process in designing the preparedness activities, including; training, drafting of contingency plans, and simulation exercises.
Emphasis Discipline and rationality
Personal security and social demand
Based on empirical data and demonstrate a distinctive integrative nature.
Goal orientated through the application of the Incident Action Plan.
Concept about workers
Economic (production
orientated). Social being
There are multiple ways to manage and structure an organisation based on its needs.
Combination of both the social and production qualities.
Content
Scientific management, administration and bureaucratic management.
Hawthorne experiment, human relations
movement and
organisational.
Based on the notion that there are multiple ways to manage and structure an organisation.
Situation dependent.
(Source: Adapted from Sarker and Khan, 2013 cited in Nhema, 2015)