DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.5 Data collection tools and processes
Both primary and secondary data was used in this research and were obtained by quantitative and qualitative techniques. As mentioned earlier, any research endeavour is not devoid of the philosophical and theoretical underpinnings. Therefore, secondary data included an overview of existing literature on energy and rural development, a review of related case studies as well as South African energy policies. Primary data was collected using survey instruments, focus
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group discussions and spatial mapping techniques. These are discussed in detail in the subsequent sections.
4.5.1 Questionnaire surveys
Questionnaires are the most commonly used quantitative tool that extracts information vital to the research (Babbie & Mouton, 2003). According to Maylor and Blackmon (2005), surveys are useful techniques in obtaining data on opinions, behaviours, and/ or attitudes from a variety of respondents. Malhotra (2006) states that questionnaires comprise a formal set of questions aimed at extracting respondent perceptions, experiences and attitudes towards specific phenomena. Questionnaire surveys are carried out by selecting a sample that adequately represents the entire population or a target group within the population, for example, small-scale farmers (Chu et al., 2009). The survey instrument has a variety of designs ranging from structured to unstructured and can include open and/ or close-ended questions. The design of the survey instrument is dependent on the research objectives and the phenomenon itself. Close-ended questions may lack flexibility for the respondent, however, they produce consistency in data and can be easily coded and captured (De Vaus, 2002; Marshall, 2005). Open-ended questions on the other hand, produce more detailed data but are associated with issues of inconsistencies and difficulties in interpretation and summarising for coding purposes (Kumar, 2011).
The survey instrument used in this study included a combination of open- and close- ended questions (Appendix A). De Vaus (2002) warns against the sterility of questionnaires as a quantitative tool but assert their value in providing factual, descriptive and insightful information on the target population. Marshall (2005) highlights language and interpretation as some of the main limitations in utilising questionnaires, and warns that the researcher should always be cognisant of the fact that respondent’s interpretation of the questions may not always align with the researcher’s objective or intention. Additionally, adequate planning in the design and administration phases is crucial in reducing poor response rates and unreliable data (Marshall, 2005). O’Sullivan et al. (2006) state that accurate data profiling of household energy use, demographics and awareness is necessary for the transition to more sustainable energy sources, but is lacking within energy debates.
In the light of the above, this study used the following themes in the research instrument to understand household energy behaviour:
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Socio-demographic profile;
Household energy profile;
Perceptions and attitudes towards various energy sources;
Awareness and perceptions of solar and solar thermal energies; and
Energy conservation practices.
Demographic variables such as age, income, employment status and current household livelihood strategies provided the context in which energy behaviour and perceptions were examined in section A of the research instrument. Additionally, this section profiled the willingness of households to engage in other livelihood activities and the main barriers that they encountered. Section B of the instrument, examined main energy sources used in the household with the emphasis on basic energy needs which when identified from the literature include cooking, heating and lighting activities. Key issues such as total usage, accessibility, affordability (start-up and current usage costs), previously used sources and main reasons for their choice were profiled. This was followed by an examination of awareness and attitudes towards commonly used energy sources.
Section C outlined respondent perceptions of renewable energy, main sources of information, preferences, and willingness to use and pay for renewable energy sources (start-up and monthly usage costs). Furthermore, respondents’ perceptions on the maintenance and up-keep of RETs were defined. This section then focuses specifically on solar thermal energy and cookers, where costs and perceptions were detailed. The survey concluded by examining awareness around climate change and specific energy conservation practices. Lastly, respondents compiled a list of the main community needs and issues.
4.5.2 Focus group discussions
According to Bryman (2008), focus group discussions are systematically designed to examine the ways in which participants interpret, perceive and collectively act in relation to the subject under study, which may unpack issues not addressed by the survey instrument. Focus group discussions are qualitative data collection methods that comprise semi-structured and structured dialogues and activities with approximately 8-15 purposively chosen individuals from the sample population (Rubin & Babbie, 2005). Other studies suggest that focus group discussions create permissive environments which allow for enhanced interaction between
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participants and the researcher, thereby stimulating multiple in-depth discussions, which enrich information collected by the surveys (De Vos et al., 2005). Likewise, reinforced assurance in confidentiality, anonymity and ethical considerations are important in creating environments where participants feel safe and comfortable to interact and converse (Barnett
& Breakwell, 2001; Denscombe, 2007). However, De Vos et al. (2005) warn against facilitator bias, which can hinder the flow of information from all participants within the group. According to Curry et al. (2009), focus group discussions are structured activities that allow participants to engage on several aspects related to the research phenomena. A focus group discussion explores the differences in experience and perspective between the individuals to highlight factors that determine people’s behaviour and opinions (Curry et al., 2009).
Focus group discussions were carried out in Bergville and Inanda to compliment primary data obtained from the survey. Resource mapping, ranking and prioritisation exercises were part of the focus group discussions and were used to afford participants an opportunity to identify and examine energy use, services and needs. One focus group session was conducted in each of the communities by facilitators who were conversant in both English and isiZulu. Each focus group was approximately 3-4 hours in length which allowed participants to engage and communicate with ease. The Inanda focus group comprised 12 individuals (5 males and 7 females) who collectively represented residents (8), local councillors (2) and individuals from a private organisation (2) tasked with installing solar-water heaters within the community.
The councillors and the informants from the private company were purposively selected whilst the community members were chosen by way of referrals from the councillors.
The Bergville focus group comprised 11 participants (four males and seven females), that were from the local community (8), local council (2) and private organisations (1) that facilitated the implementation of solar energy (solar-water heaters and photovoltaic panels) in the community. A similar technique used for the selection of the focus group in the Inanda area was used for the Bergville focus group. In addition to group interviews, ranking, option- assessment charts and participatory mapping exercises were conducted to allow for a more robust understanding of local perspectives on energy, development needs and future implementation plans of renewable energy sources. The schedule for the focus group sessions is included in Appendix B, the main thematic areas covered during the focus group discussions included the following:
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Main energy sources and their challenges;
Identification of most vulnerable and resilient households;
Ranking and priority assessments of current and preferred energy needs and sources;
Main household and community needs and challenges;
Identification of energy priority areas; and
Identification of suitable areas for the implementation of RETs.
Additionally, the focus group probed key trends emanating from survey data, specifically, the main reasons for energy related practices, preferences, attitudes and perceptions. These issues were re-visited during the focus group discussions to include any details that may have been overlooked by the field survey. Also, this provided an opportunity to examine the deeper- rooted decision-making processes that govern energy choice and practices within the communities.
4.5.3 Participatory mapping
A further exercise during the focus group discussions involved the creation of baseline maps that allowed participants to highlight important socio-economic and environmental factors/
features that shape their energy practices, as well as depict potential areas of concern for the implementation of RETs. Brown (2012) describes PGIS as a method that aims to incorporate public knowledge and perceptions in planning and decision-making processes that have spatial implications. Voss et al. (2004) show that spatial planning problems that impact on large groups of people, for example energy access or energy poverty, require multidisciplinary approaches and describe PGIS as suitable tools that successfully highlight the geographic variations. Others, such as Simão et al. (2009) state that spatial planning is a complex issue that involves multiple stakeholders, thus the use of Participatory GIS mapping (PGIS) streamlines the process of collating multiple viewpoints on a specific phenomenon.
Similarly, in the context of this study, PGIS offered a unique avenue for examining spatial variations in relation to the following:
Areas that used the most and least amount of energy and its primary purpose (for example, residential, municipal, industrial or commercial);
Most and least impoverished areas;
Areas that are most in need of energy;
Areas that currently use solar energy; and
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Environmental factors that will constrain and enable the use of solar energy.
4.5.4 Sampling framework
Sample size is vital in quantitative research, and whilst it is not possible to sample the entire population due to time and logistical limitations, a statistically representative sample is recommended for precision and accurate estimates with limited random error (Mason et al., 2000; Sverke, 2007). Similarly, Leedy (1993) asserts that sampling is a process whereby a subset of a large population is selected to represent the entire group using appropriate sampling techniques. Additionally, Patton (2002) highlights that the larger the sample the greater the statistical power of obtaining significant results. Communities were purposefully selected to represent different contexts within South Africa. The focus on peri-urban and rural communities permits a comparative analysis of different spatial, energy and social contexts.
Very few studies provide a comparative basis to assess whether peri-urban and rural communities are significantly different in relation to household level energy security and vulnerability, behaviour, preferences, and attitudes and perceptions.
4.5.4.1 Household surveys
A multi-stage spatial sampling approach was designed to obtain data for the household survey, starting with a random selection of Enumerator Areas (EAs) from the 2001 Census within the selected sites (Inanda and Bergville). The EAs are similar to wards and are used to collect census data as well as for voting purposes; they are comparable in terms of household numbers. Following a random selection of households for interviews, quantitative surveys, focus group discussions and PGIS techniques attempted to achieve objectives 2-4 and in part, objectives 1 and 5 (see Chapter 1, section 1.3) within the selected communities. The sampling design for the proposed study consists of three sampling stages:
Selection of EAs;
Selection of households within EAs; and
Selection of suitable locations for the installation of RETs based on communities’
preferences and spatial suitability (for example, terrain, slope and accessibility).
The sample design arrived at is 400 households per site, thus, a total of 800 households comprised the quantitative component for the two communities studied. Since both communities have less than 100 000 households, 400 is a statistically significant sample size
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(at the 95% level of confidence) (Isaac & Michael, 1981). Random sample points were identified using the conditional point random sampling module of Hawthorn’s tool (Version 3.27 extension for ArcGIS 9+). This tool uses proportionality and geographic spread to identify random points. These were selected by EA weighting and sub-setting according to household/ settlement density using the GIS sampling tool mentioned above. Twenty random points were generated for each community. The second stage of sampling involved the selection of 400 households from the 20 random points. The 20 closest households to the random point were surveyed. The geographic spread and randomness of the data collection criteria allowed for adequate representation of the study populations (Figures 4.8 and 4.9). As mentioned earlier, the two communities selected represent different geographic contexts, rural and peri-urban.
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Figure 4.8: Random sampling points generated for Inanda (Author, 2016)
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Figure 4.9: Random sampling points generated for Bergville (Author, 2016)
Four hundred household surveys were administered in each community, comprising a total of 800 surveys for this study. Sixty households in communities neighbouring Inanda and Bergville were chosen to pilot the surveys, approximately one month prior to data collection.
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The pre-tests revealed that households were able to understand the questions and respond appropriately. However, questions that proved to be unclear or ambiguous during the piloting exercise were either omitted or rephrased depending on their relevance to research questions and objectives of this study. Moreover, based on the level of detail and responses obtained from the piloting exercise, a few open-ended questions were restructured to close-ended questions to facilitate easier capture of responses for the fieldworkers and data inputters.
Marshall (2005) foregrounds the importance of minimising comprehension errors during the interview process, emphasising the importance of language and coherent communication between the respondent and interviewer. The survey instrument used in this study was designed in English, however, respondents from the communities sampled were primarily isiZulu and English speaking. Thus, field assistants conversant in IsiZulu and English were employed to conduct the interviews. Field assistants underwent training to avoid communication and interpretation errors when conducting the interviews. Data was collected over a period of three weeks in each community by 10-12 fieldworkers. Each survey was pre- processed on site to check for completeness and consistency, thereby reducing errors in the interpretation stages. Survey data was later captured using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS, IBM Version 23) software. Incomplete surveys were not included in the study.
4.5.4.2 Focus group discussions
Community members were purposively chosen to represent diversity in age, gender, income category and level of education. The literature presented in Chapter 2, lists these variables as some of the major factors that influence household energy practices and decisions. Focus group discussions were conducted post survey to scrutinise key trends and relationships that emerged from survey data. Ranking of energy options that best suited the needs of the households were prioritised, with the aid of option assessment charts and matrices, to compliment data obtained from the surveys. Focus group discussions were conducted by a facilitator (conversant in both English and IsiZulu), and notes were taken by two scribes to reduce error in interpretation and translation. The entire discussion was conducted over two sessions, the latter comprising the various mapping activities, and was between 3-4 hours in duration with each activity taking between 15-20 minutes.
143 4.6 Reflexivity and positionality
Reflexivity is a process carried out by the researcher whereby he/she reflects on preconceived values or actions, feelings and conflicts (Parahoo, 1997; Holloway & Wheeler, 2002). I explored my personal experiences and feeling regarding those aspects that might influence the study and was cognisant of these aspects to achieve some degree of objectivity (Burns and Grove, 2003). This experience made me more aware of possible biases and preconceived ideas that I may have had in my position as an outsider. This brings into question the concept of ‘positionality’ when conducting the qualitative aspects of my research, especially, the focus group discussions and participatory mapping. Chacko (2004:52) defines positionality as
“…aspects of identity in terms of race, class, gender, caste, sexuality and other attributes that are markers of relational positions in society, rather than intrinsic qualities”. As indicated, the population in both Inanda and Bergville are almost exclusively African. My position as a South African Indian, conducting research in predominantly African communities, in a country that was historically racially divided, made me an outsider as explained by Mullings (1999) and Ganga and Scott (2006). Also, I am not fluent in isiZulu (the local language), and therefore was unable to personally facilitate the focus group discussions. However, I was introduced by the facilitators, this exercise seemed to gain the trust of those present which led to a smooth transition to the focus group discussions. Furthermore, it emerged during the discussions that all focus group respondents were bilingual (spoke both English and isiZulu), hence I took the lead in explaining the mapping exercises since this is my area of expertise.