CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW
3.5 Energy and Development
The importance of accessing sustainable, efficient, cost-effective and modern energy options have been well-documented, specifically in relation to socio-economic development, poverty alleviation and environmental protection; warranting the inclusion of energy issues as a fundamental aspect in approaches to development (Modi et al., 2006; Kanagawa & Nakata, 2007; Prasad, 2008; Fouquet, 2010; Lior, 2010; Nussbaumer et al., 2012; Rehman et al., 2012; Sokona et al., 2012; Szabó et al., 2013; Bridge et al., 2016). It is argued that sustainable economic growth, poverty reduction and improvements in health and levels of formal education are dependent on the regular supply of electric energy (Pereira et al., 2011a).
Chaurey et al. (2004) argue that electricity is vital for both the enhancement of living standards as well as productivity and economic activities. Likewise, Kanagawa and Nakata (2007) assert that accessing modern forms of energy is among the fundamental requirements
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for development. Other studies argue that access to abundant, affordable and reliable energy is necessary in meeting basic needs and it enhances all aspects in relation to quality of life (Bridge et al., 2016).
Rehman et al. (2012) state that historically, access to electricity was considered the main driver of economic growth and development and is therefore subject to immense political influence and regulation. Improved access to energy has also been associated with improved accumulation of livelihood assets through the diversification of livelihood options, and the availability of more production hours in the day, previously consumed by the collection and procurement of traditional sources of energy (Cecelski, 2000; Denton, 2002; Modi et al., 2006). Gustavsson (2004), for example, showed that with better lighting services, school performance amongst children was greatly enhanced within Zambia. Kanagawa and Nakata (2007) also highlight several benefits of improving access to sustainable, cost-effective and safe energy sources and describe women and children to be the main beneficiaries (Figure 3.4). Although literature cites various linkages between energy access and poverty reduction, these relationships are complex in nature and need to be examined both quantitatively and qualitatively (Kanagawa and Nakata, 2007).
Figure 3.4: Benefits of energy (Source: Kanagawa & Nakata, 2007: 321)
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It has been noted that the provision of energy services is directly linked to economic security and has the ability to promote overall social development and well-being (Sovacool, 2012).
Pereira et al. (2011a) show that the introduction of electricity was closely associated within the adoption of modern cooking techniques and therefore a reduction in the use of solid fuels (such as traditional biomass), consequently reducing the risk of indoor pollution and other related respiratory diseases. Additionally, the use of modern energy sources was found to promote an improvement in living standards through the provision of services such as refrigeration, lighting, heating and cooling of living spaces and more efficient cooking appliances (Bhide & Monroy, 2011). Kanagawa and Nakata (2007) present similar findings from India where significant reductions in respiratory related illness were observed when gas stoves replaced traditional wood stoves. Barnes et al. (2011) assert that the availability of electric power and the associated energy services create vast opportunities for poor households through extended work and study time, which promote household productivity and educational achievement.
Bazilian et al. (2014) are of the opinion that access to modern energy services, for instance cooking, lighting and heating are necessary elements for an acceptable quality of life and thus should be prioritised as basic human rights. Similarly, a related study suggests a correlation between access to modern cooking energy and increased daily average of food intake (Pachauri & Spreng, 2011). Accessing cost-effective modern and reliable energy services has been noted to improve agricultural output through mechanised irrigation and processing of raw materials, facilitate the establishment of micro-industries that enhance employment opportunities for the local community, and improve level of participation in economic activities such as sewing, crafting and catering (Kaygusuz, 2011). Over the past two decades widening access to energy, more specifically access to modern sources of energy, has been central to many development initiatives within sub-Saharan Africa and South East Asia (Sokona et al., 2012).
Modi et al. (2006) argue that even though the MDGs do not overtly include energy, access to affordable, safe and modern energy services are essential for meeting all the MDGs.
However, the recent SDGs highlight access to clean energy as one of the primary goals. In this regard, recent studies have also linked realisation of the SGDs to improved access to education, gender empowerment, improvements in health, and quality of life (Griggs et al., 2013; Lu et al., 2015; Chin & Jacobsson, 2016; Costanza et al., 2016; Bongaarts, 2016;
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Fredman et al., 2016). Similarly, the International year for Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL) initiative calls for universal access to modern energy, a 40% reduction in global energy intensity, and an increase in renewable energy use to approximately 30% of total primary energy supply by the year 2030 (Sovacool, 2012: 227).
Additionally, the UN highlighted the following energy-related targets as essential in achieving the MDGs (Practical Action, 2010):
Ensure that approximately 50% of the current traditional biomass users (cooking purposes) switch to modern fuels;
Ensure that reliable modern energy services are accessible to the poor in urban and peri-urban areas;
Ensure that all schools, health facilities (clinics and hospitals) and community centres are electrified; and
Ensure that all communities in rural and urban areas have access to mechanised power.
It is firmly established that energy promotes multiple forms of development and empowerment. However, a recent study establishes that the number of people living without electricity has increased due to natural population increase rates exceeding the rate of electricity connections (Panos et al., 2016). This raises several concerns particularly in terms of meeting some of the goals prescribed in the MDGs, SDGs and the UN SE4ALL programme. The rate of electrification remains a critical challenge in developing countries.
Furthermore, current reliance on fossil fuel-based energy options remains unsustainable and has a significant contribution to total carbon and GHGs. Current energy studies suggest an establishment of a nexus between energy, socio-economic development and environmental well-being, given the current concerns over the impacts of climate change and poverty (Szabó et al., 2013; Bazilian et al., 2014; Mayer et al., 2014; Bridge et al., 2016). Renewable energies are increasingly seen as viable options that address some of these issues without comprising environmental well-being. There has been significant technological advancements and innovation in relation to the application, design, capabilities and cost of residential-based alternate and renewable energy systems. The following section provides an overview of the renewable energy sector in relation to residential use and poverty alleviation.
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